Bulk carrier
This article needs additional citations for verification. (July 2023) |
Sabrina I is a modern Handymax bulk carrier.
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Class overview | |
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Subclasses | Handymax, Handysize, Panamax, Capesize, Chinamax |
Built | c. 1850–present |
Active | 12,700 vessels over 500 GT (2021)[1] |
General characteristics (typical) | |
Type | Bulk carrier |
Tonnage | up to 400,000 DWT |
Length | 300 m (980 ft) |
Height | 40 m (130 ft) |
Propulsion | 2-stroke diesel engine and 1 propeller |
Speed | 12 knots |
Notes | Rear house, full hull, series of large hatches |
Plans of a geared Handymax bulk carrier
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A bulk carrier or bulker is a
Today, bulk carriers make up 21 percent of the world's merchant fleets,[2] and they range in size from single-hold mini-bulk carriers to mammoth ore ships able to carry 400,000 metric tons of deadweight (DWT). A number of specialized designs exist: some can unload their own cargo, some depend on port facilities for unloading, and some even package the cargo as it is loaded. Over half of all bulk carriers have Greek, Japanese, or Chinese owners, and more than a quarter are registered in Panama. South Korea is the largest single builder of bulk carriers, and 82 percent of these ships were built in Asia.
On bulk carriers, crews are involved in operation, management, and maintenance of the vessel, taking care of safety, navigation, maintenance, and cargo care, in accordance with international maritime legislation. Crews can range in size from three people on the smallest ships to over 30 on the largest.
Cargo loading operations vary in complexity, and loading and discharging of cargo can take several days. Bulk carriers can be gearless (dependent upon terminal equipment) or geared (having cranes integral to the vessel).
Bulk cargo can be very dense, corrosive, or abrasive. This can present safety problems that can threaten a ship: problems such as cargo shifting, spontaneous combustion, and cargo saturation. The use of old ships that have corrosion problems—as well as the bulk carriers' large hatchways—have been linked to a spate of bulk carrier sinkings in the 1990s. These large hatchways, important for efficient cargo handling, can allow the entry of large volumes of water in storms and accelerate sinking once a vessel has listed or heeled. New international regulations have since been introduced to improve ship design and inspection and to streamline the process for crews to abandon ship.
Definition
The term bulk carrier has been defined in varying ways. As of 1999, the
A number of abbreviations are used to describe bulk carriers. "
History
Before specialized bulk carriers were developed, shippers had two methods to move bulk goods by ship. In the first method,
Specialized bulk carriers began to appear as
Before
Categories
Size categories
Name | Size in DWT[18] |
Ships[19] | Traffic[20] | New price[21] |
Used price[22] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Handysize | 10,000 to 35,000 | 34% | 18% | $25M | $20M |
Handymax | 35,000 to 59,000 | 37% | |||
Panamax | 60,000 to 80,000 | 19% | 20% | $35M | $25M |
Capesize | 80,000 and over | 10% | 62% | $58M | $54M |
Bulk carriers are segregated into six major size categories: small, handysize, handymax, panamax, capesize, and very large.[23] Very large bulk and ore carriers fall into the capesize category but are often considered separately.
Categories as per regions
Categories occur in
- "Kamsarmax": Maximum length overall 229 meters refers to a new type of ship, larger than panamax, that is suitable for berthing at the Port of Kamsar (Republic of Guinea), where the major loading terminal of bauxite is restricted to vessels not more than 229 meters.[25]
- "Newcastlemax": Maximum beam 50 meters, and maximum length overall of 300 meters Refers to the largest vessel able to enter the port of Newcastle, Australia at about 185,000 DWT[26]
- "Setouchmax": About 203,000 Setouchi Sea, Japan
- "Seawaymax": LOA 226 m max / 7.92 m draft. Refers to the largest vessel that can pass through the canal locks of the St. Lawrence Seaway (Great Lakes, Canada)[27]
- "Malaccamax": LOA 330 m / 20 m draft / 300,000 DWT, Refers to the largest vessel that can pass through the Straits of Malacca.
- "Dunkirkmax": Maximum allowable lock in the Port of Dunkirk(France)
Mini-bulk carriers are prevalent in the category of small vessels with a capacity of under 10,000 DWT. Mini-bulk carriers carry from 500 to 2,500 tons, have a single hold, and are designed for river transport. They are often built to be able to pass under bridges and have small crews of three to eight people.
Handysize and Handymax ships are general purpose in nature.[4] These two segments represent 71% of all bulk carriers over 10,000 DWT and also have the highest rate of growth.[28] This is partly due to new regulations coming into effect which put greater constraints on the building of larger vessels.[28] Handymax ships are typically 150–200 m in length and 52,000 – 58,000 DWT with five cargo holds and four cranes.[4] These ships are also general purpose in nature.[4]
The size of a Panamax vessel is limited by the
Capesize ships are too large to traverse the Panama canal and must round Cape Horn to travel between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Earlier, Capesize ships could not traverse the Suez and needed to go around the Cape of Good Hope. Recent deepening of the Suez canal to 66 ft (20 m) permits most Capesize ships to pass through it.[30]
Capesize bulk carriers are specialized: 93% of their cargo is iron ore and coal.[4] Some ships on the Great Lakes Waterway exceed Panamax dimensions but they are limited to use on the Great Lakes as they cannot pass through the smaller St. Lawrence Seaway to the ocean. Very large ore carriers and very large bulk carriers are a subset of the capesize category reserved for vessels over 200,000 DWT.[23] Carriers of this size are almost always designed to carry iron ore.[23]
In October 2022, Mitsui O.S.K. Lines (MOL)'s bulk carrier Shofu Maru arrived in Newcastle on its maiden voyage, becoming the first bulk carrier to be partially powered by hard sail wind power propulsion technology. A five percent fuel savings was anticipated.[31]
General types
Illustration | Description |
---|---|
Geared bulk carriers are typically in the handysize to handymax size range although there are a small number of geared panamax vessels, like all bulk carriers they feature a series of holds covered by prominent hatch covers. They have conveyors that allow them to load or discharge cargo in ports without shore-based equipment. This gives geared bulk carriers flexibility in the cargoes they can carry and the routes they can travel. (Photo: A typical geared handysize bulk carrier.)
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Combined carriers are designed to transport both liquid and dry bulk cargoes. If both are carried simultaneously, they are segregated in separate holds and tanks. Combined carriers require special design and are expensive. They were prevalent in the 1970s, but their numbers have dwindled since 1990. (Photo: The oil pipeline and dry bulk hold aboard Maya.) | |
Gearless carriers are bulk carriers without cranes or conveyors. These ships depend on shore-based equipment at their ports of call for loading and discharging. They range across all sizes, the larger bulk carriers (VLOCs) can only dock at the largest ports, some of these are designed with a single port-to-port trade in mind. The use of gearless bulk carriers avoids the costs of installing, operating, and maintaining cranes. (Photo:Berge Athen, a 225,000 ton gearless bulk carrier.) | |
Self-dischargers are bulk carriers with conveyor belts, or with the use of an excavator that is fitted on a traverse running over the vessel's entire hatch, and that is able to move sideways as well. This allows them to discharge their cargo quickly and efficiently. (Photo: John B. Aird a self-discharging lake freighter.) | |
(Photo: Edward L. Ryerson, a Great Lakes bulk carrier.) | |
BIBO or "Bulk In, Bags Out" bulk carriers are equipped to bag cargo as it is unloaded. CHL Innovator, shown in the photo, is a BIBO bulk carrier. In one hour, this ship can unload 300 tons of bulk sugar and package it into 50 kg sacks[34] |
Fleet characteristics
The world's bulk transport has reached immense proportions: in 2005, 1.7 billion metric tons of coal, iron ore, grain, bauxite, and phosphate was transported by ship.[36] Today, the world's bulk carrier fleet includes 6,225 ships of over 10,000 DWT, and represent 40% of all ships in terms of tonnage and 39.4% in terms of vessels.[33] Including smaller ships, bulk carriers have a total combined capacity of almost 346 million DWT.[37] Combined carriers are a very small portion of the fleet, representing less than 3% of this capacity.[37] The lake freighters of the Great Lakes, with 98 ships of 3.2 million total DWT, despite forming a small fraction of the total fleet by tonnage and only operating 10 months a year, carried a tenth of the world's bulk cargo because of the short trip distance and fast turnarounds.[33][38]
As of 2005, the average bulk carrier was just over 13 years old.[39] About 41% of all bulk carriers were less than ten years old, 33% were over twenty years old, and the remaining 26% were between ten and twenty years of age.[39] All of the 98 bulk carriers registered in the Great Lakes trade are over 20 years old and the oldest still sailing in 2009, the St. Mary's Challenger, was 106 years old.[40]
Flag states
As of 2005, the United States Maritime Administration counted 6,225 bulk carriers of 10,000 DWT or greater worldwide.[42] More bulk carriers are registered in Panama, with 1,703 ships, more than any four other flag states combined.[42] In terms of the number of bulk carriers registered, the top five flag states also include Hong Kong with 492 ships, Malta (435), Cyprus (373), and China (371).[42] Panama also dominates bulk carrier registration in terms of deadweight tonnage. Positions two through five are held by Hong Kong, Greece, Malta, and Cyprus.[42]
Largest fleets
Greece, Japan, and China are the top three owners of bulk carriers, with 1,326, 1,041, and 979 vessels respectively.[43] These three nations account for over 53% of the world's fleet.[43]
Several companies have large private bulk carrier fleets. The multinational company
Builders
Asian companies dominate the construction of bulk carriers. Of the world's 6,225 bulk carriers, almost 62% were built in Japan
Freight charges
Several factors affect the cost to move a bulk cargo by ship. The bulk freight market is very volatile, and it fluctuates, along with the type of cargo, the ship's size, and the route traveled all affect the final price. Moving a capesize load of coal from South America to Europe cost anywhere from $15 to $25 per ton in 2005.[53] Hauling a panamax-sized load of aggregate materials from the Gulf of Mexico to Japan that year could cost as little as $40 per ton to as much as $70 per ton.[53]
Some shippers choose instead to charter a ship, paying a daily rate instead of a set price per ton.[53] In 2005, the average daily rate for a Handymax ship varied between $18,000 – $30,000.[53] A Panamax ship could be chartered for $20,000 – $50,000 per day, and a Capesize for $40,000 – $70,000 per day.[53]
Ship breaking
Generally, ships are removed from the fleet by going through a process known as
Operation
Crew
Captain/Master | ||
Deck department |
Engine department |
Steward's department |
---|---|---|
1 Chief mate |
1 Chief engineer |
The crew on a bulk carrier typically consists of 20 to 30 people, though smaller ships can be handled by 8. The crew includes the captain or master, the
During the 1990s, bulk carriers were involved in an alarming number of shipwrecks. This led ship-owners to commission a study seeking to explain the effect of various factors on the crew's effectiveness and competence.[60] The study showed that crew performance aboard bulk carriers was the lowest of all groups studied.[60] Among bulk carrier crews, the best performance was found aboard younger and larger ships.[60] Crews on better-maintained ships performed better, as did crews on ships where fewer languages were spoken.[60]
Fewer
Voyages
A bulk carrier's voyages are determined by market forces; routes and cargoes often vary. A ship may engage in the grain trade during the harvest season and later move on to carry other cargoes or work on a different route. Aboard a coastal carrier in the tramp trade, the crew will often not know the next port of call until the cargo is fully loaded.
Because bulk cargo is so difficult to discharge, bulk carriers spend more time in port than other ships. A study of mini-bulk carriers found that it takes, on average, twice as much time to unload a ship as it does to load it.[60] A mini-bulk carrier spends 55 hours at a time in port, compared to 35 hours for a lumber carrier of similar size.[60] This time in port increases to 74 hours for Handymax and 120 hours for Panamax vessels.[60] Compared with the 12-hour turnarounds common for container ships, 15-hour turnarounds for car carriers, and 26-hour turnarounds for large tankers, bulk carrier crews have more opportunities to spend time ashore.[60]
Loading and unloading
Loading and unloading a bulk carrier is time-consuming and dangerous. The process is planned by the ship's
The loading method used depends on both the cargo and the equipment available on the ship and on the dock. In the least advanced ports, cargo can be loaded with shovels or bags poured from the hatch cover. This system is being replaced with faster, less labor-intensive methods.[63] Double-articulation cranes, which can load at a rate of 1,000 tons per hour, represent a widely used method,[63] and the use of shore-based gantry cranes, reaching 2,000 tons per hour, is growing.[63] A crane's discharge rate is limited by the bucket's capacity (from 6 to 40 tons) and by the speed at which the crane can take a load, deposit it at the terminal and return to take the next. For modern gantry cranes, the total time of the grab-deposit-return cycle is about 50 seconds.[4]
Conveyor belts offer a very efficient method of loading, with standard loading rates varying between 100 and 700 tons per hour, although the most advanced ports can offer rates of 16,000 tons per hour.[63][64] Start-up and shutdown procedures with conveyor belts, though, are complicated and require time to carry out.[64] Self-discharging ships use conveyor belts with load rates of around 1,000 tons per hour.[63]
Once the cargo is discharged, the crew begins to clean the holds. This is particularly important if the next cargo is of a different type.[65] The immense size of cargo holds and the tendency of cargoes to be physically irritating add to the difficulty of cleaning the holds. When the holds are clean, the process of loading begins.
It is crucial to keep the cargo level during loading in order to maintain stability.[8] As the hold is filled, machines such as excavators and bulldozers are often used to keep the cargo in check. Leveling is particularly important when the hold is only partly full, since cargo is more likely to shift.[66] Extra precautions are taken, such as adding longitudinal divisions and securing wood atop the cargo.[7] If a hold is full, a technique called tomming is used,[8] which involves digging out a 6 feet (2 m) hole below the hatch cover and filling it with bagged cargo or weights.[8]
-
1. A bulldozer is loaded into the hold.
-
2. The bulldozer pushes cargo to the center of the hold.
-
3. The gantry crane picks up the cargo.
-
4. The gantry crane removes the cargo from the ship.
-
5. The gantry crane moves the cargo to a bin on the pier.
Architecture
A bulk carrier's design is largely defined by the cargo it will carry. The cargo's density, also known as its stowage factor, is the key factor. Densities for common bulk cargoes vary from 0.6 tons per cubic meter for light grains to 3 tons per cubic meter for iron ore.[4]
The overall cargo weight is the limiting factor in the design of an ore carrier, since the cargo is so dense. Coal carriers, on the other hand, are limited by overall volume, since most bulk carriers can be completely filled with coal before reaching their maximum draft.[4]
For a given tonnage, the second factor which governs the ship's dimensions is the size of the ports and waterways it will travel to. For example, a vessel that will pass the Panama Canal will be limited in its beam and draft. For most designs, the ratio of length-to-width ranges between 5 and 7, with an average of 6.2.[4] The ratio of length-to-height will be between 11 and 12.[4]
Machinery
The
As a result of the
Hatches
A hatch or hatchway is the opening at the top of a
As recently as the 1950s, hatches had wooden covers that would be broken apart and rebuilt by hand, rather than opened and closed.[68] Newer vessels have hydraulic-operated metal hatch covers that can often be operated by one person.[65] Hatch covers can slide forwards, backwards, or to the side, lift up or fold up. It is essential that the hatch covers be watertight: unsealed hatches lead to accidental cargo hold flooding, which has caused many bulk carriers to sink.[69]
Regulations regarding hatch covers have evolved since the investigation following the loss of the MV Derbyshire.[70] The Load Line Conference of 1966 imposed a requirement that hatch covers be able to withstand load of 1.74 tons/m2 due to sea water, and a minimum scantling of 6 mm for the tops of the hatch covers. The International Association of Classification Societies then increased this strength standard by creating its Unified Requirement S21[71] in 1998. This standard requires that the pressure due to sea water be calculated as a function of freeboard and speed, especially for hatch covers located on the forward portion of the ship.[71]
Hull
Bulk carriers are designed to be easy to build and to store cargo efficiently. To facilitate
Bulk carriers have a cross-section typical of most merchant ships. The upper and lower corners of the hold are used as
The double bottoms are also subject to design constraints. The primary concern is that they be high enough to allow the passage of pipes and cables. These areas must also be roomy enough to allow people safe access to perform surveys and maintenance. On the other hand, concerns of excess weight and wasted volume keep the double bottoms very tight spaces.
Bulk carrier hulls are made of steel, usually
A recent design, called Hy-Con, seeks to combine the strengths of single-hull and double-hull construction. Short for Hybrid Configuration, this design doubles the forward-most and rear-most holds and leaves the others single-hulled.[78] This approach increases the ship's solidity at key points, while reducing the overall tare weight.[79]
Since the adoption of double hull has been more of an economic than a purely architectural decision, some argue that double-sided ships receive fewer comprehensive surveys and suffer more from hidden corrosion.[80] In spite of opposition, double hulls became a requirement for Panamax and Capesize vessels in 2005.[81]
Freighters are in continual danger of "breaking their backs"
These analyses are conducted when traveling empty, loading and unloading, when partially and fully loaded, and under conditions of temporary overloading.
Since 1 April 2006, the International Association of Classification Societies has adopted the Common Structural Rules. The rules apply to bulk carriers more than 90 meters in length and require that scantlings' calculations take into account items such as the effect of corrosion, the harsh conditions often found in the
Safety
The 1980s and 1990s were a very unsafe time for bulk carriers. Many bulk carriers sank during this time; 99 were lost between 1990 and 1997 alone.[12] Most of these sinkings were sudden and quick, making it impossible for the crew to escape: more than 650 sailors were lost during this same period.[12] Due partly to the sinking of MV Derbyshire, a series of international safety resolutions regarding bulk carriers were adopted during the 1990s.[69]
Stability problems
Cargo shifting poses a great danger for bulk carriers. The problem is even more pronounced with grain cargoes, since grain settles during a voyage and creates extra space between the top of the cargo and the top of the hold.[7] Cargo is then free to move from one side of the ship to the other as the ship rolls. This can cause the ship to list, which, in turn, causes more cargo to shift. This kind of chain reaction can capsize a bulk carrier very quickly.[7]
The 1960 SOLAS Convention sought to control this sort of problem.[85] These regulations required the upper ballast tanks designed in a manner to prevent shifting. They also required cargoes to be leveled, or trimmed, using excavators in the holds.[16][86] The practice of trimming reduces the amount of the cargo's surface area in contact with air[87] which has a useful side-effect: reducing the chances of spontaneous combustion in cargoes such as coal, iron, and metal shavings.[87]
Another sort of risk that can affect dry cargoes is absorption of ambient moisture.[88] When very fine concretes and aggregates mix with water, the mud created at the bottom of the hold shifts easily and can produce a free surface effect.[88] The only way to control these risks is by good ventilation practices and careful monitoring for the presence of water.[88]
The International Maritime Organization sets out international standards and codes for the safe stowage and transportation of bulk carrier cargoes. These include the International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes Code, the International Code for the Safe Carriage of Grain in Bulk and the Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes.[89][90]
Structural problems
In 1990 alone, 20 bulk carriers sank, taking with them 94 crewmen. In 1991, 24 bulk carriers sank, killing 154.
The accident studies showed a clear pattern:[69]
- Sea water enters the forward hatch, due to a large wave, a poor seal, corrosion, etc.[69]
- The extra water weight in hold number one compromises the partition to hold number two,[69]
- Water enters hold number two and alters the trim so much that more water enters the holds[69]
- With two holds rapidly filling with water, the bow submerges, and the ship quickly sinks, leaving little time for the crew to react.[69]
Previous practices had required ships to withstand the flooding of a single forward hold but did not guard against situations where two holds would flood. The case where two after (rear) holds are flooded is no better, because the engine room is quickly flooded, leaving the ship without propulsion. If two holds in the middle of the ship are flooded, the stress on the hull can become so great that the ship snaps in two.
Other contributing factors were identified:
- Most shipwrecks involved ships over 20 years in age. A glut of ships of this age occurred in the 1980s, caused by an overestimate of the growth of international trade. Rather than replace them prematurely, shipping companies were compelled on cost grounds to keep their aging vessels in service.[7]
- Corrosion, due to a lack of maintenance, affected the seals of the hatch covers and the strength of the bulkheads which separate holds. The corrosion is difficult to detect due to the immense size of the surfaces involved.[92][93]
- Advanced methods of loading were not foreseen when the ships were designed. While the new processes are more efficient, loading is more difficult to control (it can take over an hour just to halt the operation), occasionally resulting in overloading the ship. These unexpected shocks, over time, can damage the hull's structural integrity.[64]
- Recent use of high-tensile steel allows building a structure with less material and weight while retaining similar strength. However, because it is thinner than regular steel, HT steel can corrode more easily, plus it can develop metal fatigue in choppy seas.[73]
- According to Lloyd's Register, a principal cause of sinkings was the attitude of ship-owners, who sent ships with known problems to sea.[94]
The new rules adopted in the 1997 annexes to the
Crew safety
Since December 2004, Panamax and Capesize bulk carriers have been required to carry free-fall lifeboats located on the stern, behind the deckhouse.[7] This arrangement allows the crew to abandon ship quickly in case of a catastrophic emergency.[96] One argument against the use of free-fall lifeboats is that the evacuees require "some degree of physical mobility, even fitness" to enter and launch the boat.[97] Also, injuries have occurred during launches, for example, in the case of incorrectly secured safety belts.[97]
In December 2002, Chapter XII of the SOLAS convention was amended to require the installation of high-level water alarms and monitoring systems on all bulk carriers. This safety measure quickly alerts watch standers on the bridge and in the engine room in case of flooding in the holds.[7] In cases of catastrophic flooding, these detectors could speed the process of abandoning ship.
See also
- Berge Stahl, the largest bulk carrier from 1986 until 2011
- Bright Field
- Edmund Fitzgerald
- Flare
- Lake Illawarra
- New Carissa
- Ore Brasil, the largest bulk carrier in service
- Paul R. Tregurtha, the largest bulk carrier on the Great Lakes
- Sygna
Notes
- ^ Dry Bulk Market Primer
- ^ "• Global merchant fleet - number of ships by type 2019 | Statista". 22 December 2019. Archived from the original on 22 December 2019. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
- ^ "Maritime Safety Committee's 70th Session, January 1999". American Bureau of Shipping. Archived from the original on 4 September 2007. Retrieved 9 April 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Lamb, 2003.
- ^ "Maritime Glossary". The Transportation Institute. Archived from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 6 May 2008.
- ^ "Acronyms and Abbreviations". The Nautical Institute. Archived from the original on 8 April 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Bulk Carrier – Improving Cargo Safety". United Nations Atlas of the Oceans. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 9 April 2007.
- ^ a b c d e Hayler, 2003:5–13.
- ^ DOC, mémoire de DESS, 1999.
- ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 881.
- ^ Shipwrecks – A Deep Look, The Rise of the Self-unloading Freighter, The Heritage Museum and Cultural Center (HMCC) and Michigan Shipwreck Research Associates
- ^ a b c d International Maritime Organization, 1999:1.
- ^ a b "Bulk Carriers". United Nations Ocean Atlas. Archived from the original on 13 May 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
- ^ a b c d "IMO and the safety of bulk carriers" (PDF). International Maritime Organization. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2008. Retrieved 9 April 2007.
- ISBN 0-8143-2359-6.
- ^ a b International Maritime Organization, 1999: 1, 2.
- ISBN 0-8143-2359-6.
- ^ Ranges vary slightly. MAN Diesel Group 2005, p.4. UNCTAD 2006, p. xii.
- ^ From Lamb, 2003 and the 2005 CIA World Factbook. See also graph and table at Wikimedia Commons.
- ^ From Lamb, 2003. This is measured in terms of the tonnage of cargo carried multiplied by the distance traveled, and could be expressed in terms of (miles x tons), for example.
- Min 2010.
- Min 2010.
- ^ a b c d e MAN Diesel Group, 2005, p. 3-4.
- ^ "Kamsarmax 82BC". Tsuneishi Corp. Archived from the original on 6 July 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
- ^ Kamsarmax, Definition, World Shipping Directory (accessed August) 2013
- ^ Steve's Guide to Bulk Carriers (Accessed August 2013), Harris, Steve, [www.stevesmaritime.com
- ^ "Seawaymax". Archived from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
- ^ a b "Handysize re-vamp: the next move in bulk carriers?". The Naval Architect. January 2006.
- ^ Autoridad del Canal de Panamá 2005, pp. 11 – 12.
- ^ "Egypt's Suez canal H1 revenue, traffic up; upgrade helps". Reuters Africa. Thomson Reuters (af.reuters.com). 26 July 2010. Archived from the original on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ Tamim, Baba (28 October 2022). "'Wind Challenger': World's first partially wind-powered cargo ship successfully sailed". interestingengineering.com. Retrieved 1 November 2022.
- ^ a b International Maritime Organization, 1999:6.
- ^ a b c Office of Data and Economic Analysis, 2006:1.
- ^ "BIBO – Bulk In – Bags Out – Bulk In – Bulk Out". biboships.com. Archived from the original on 26 September 2019. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
- ^ Lloyd's Register World Fleet Statistics Tables. London: Lloyd's. 2000. Archived from the original on 6 January 2010.
- ^ UNCTAD 2006, p.11.
- ^ a b UNCTAD 2006, p. 21.
- ^ Great Lakes Navigation System: Economic Strength to the Nation Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, US Army Corps of Engineers, 2006
- ^ a b UNCTAD 2006, p. 23.
- ^ Office of Data and Economic Analysis, 2006:2.
- ^ "The CIA World Factbook, 2005". cia.gov. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 9 April 2007.
- ^ a b c d Office of Data and Economic Analysis, 2006:6.
- ^ a b Office of Data and Economic Analysis, 2006:4.
- ^ Gearbulk (2008). "About Us". Gearbulk Holding Limited. Archived from the original on 23 April 2008. Retrieved 22 April 2008.
- ^ Fednav Group (2007). "Fleet Owned". Fednav Group. Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2008. and Fednav Group (2007). "Fleet Chartered". Fednav Group. Archived from the original on 24 March 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2008.
- ^ "Atlantska Plovidba Fleet". Atlantska Plovidba d.d. Dubrovnik. Archived from the original on 7 April 2007. Retrieved 15 April 2007.
- ^ H. Vogemann Group (2007). "Fleet List" (PDF). H. Vogemann Group. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 May 2008. Retrieved 1 May 2008.
- ^ "Portline Frota". PORTLINE Transportes Marítimos Internacionais, S.A. Retrieved 15 April 2007.
- ^ According to description of the main ship-owners, from the French Marine–Marchande website.[dead link]
- ^ "Stephenson Clarke Fleet". Stephenson Clarke Shipping Ltd. Archived from the original on 1 April 2007. Retrieved 15 April 2007.
- ^ "The Cornships Fleet". Cornships Management & Agency Inc. Retrieved 15 April 2007.
- ^ a b c d Office of Data and Economic Analysis, 2006:5.
- ^ a b c d e f g UNCTAD 2005.
- ^ a b Bailey, Paul J. (2000). "Is there a decent way to break up ships?". Sectoral Activities Programme. International Labour Organization. Retrieved 29 May 2007.
- ^ Maritime Transport Coordination Platform (November 2006). "3: The London Tonnage Convention" (PDF). Tonnage Measurement Study. MTCP Work Package 2.1, Quality and Efficiency. Bremen/Brussels. p. 3.3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 March 2007. Retrieved 29 May 2007.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Staff Correspondent, Ctg (6 September 2009). "Safety still missing". The Daily Star (Bangladesh). Retrieved 12 September 2009.
- ^ OSHA (US Govt). "Shipbreaking » Inventory of Hazardous Materials". Retrieved 12 September 2009.
- ^ Andrew Buncombe (31 August 2009). "Alang: The place where ships go to die". The Independent. UK. Retrieved 12 September 2009.
- ^ Some companies specialize in providing cruises on various kinds of freighters, for example Freighter World Cruises Archived 7 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Lane, Tony (2001). Bulk Carrier Crews; Competence, Crew composition & Voyage Cycles. Cardiff University.
- ^ "MSC Circular 947: Safe Loading and Unloading of Bulk Carriers" (PDF). International Maritime Organization. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2007. Retrieved 15 April 2007.
- ^ George, 2005:245.
- ^ a b c d e Packard, William V. (1985). Sea-trading. Fairplay Publications.
- ^ a b c d International Maritime Organization, 1999:7.
- ^ a b Hayler, 2003:5–11.
- ^ George, 2005:341, 344.
- ^ ISBN 0-905045-42-4.
- ^ Hayler, 2003:5–9.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Improving the safety of bulk carriers" (PDF). International Maritime Organization. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 July 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2015.
- ^ Byrne, David (10 October 2001). Hatch Covers on Bulk Carriers: The Effect on Procurement Costs of Changes in Design Pressure. Conférence internationale RINA.
- ^ a b International Association of Classification Societies 2007, p. 21-1.
- ^ George, 2005:221.
- ^ a b c International Maritime Organization, 1999:8.
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