Chinese sovereign
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History of China |
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The Chinese sovereign was the ruler of a particular
Sovereign titles
Emperor
The characters Huang (皇 huáng "august (ruler)") and Di (帝 dì "divine ruler") had been used separately and never consecutively (see
From the
The power of the emperor varied between emperors and dynasties, with some emperors being absolute rulers and others being figureheads with actual power lying in the hands of court factions,
Of the
King
The king (王, wáng) was the Chinese head of state during the Zhou dynasty. Its use during the Xia and Shang is uncertain but possible: the character has been found upon oracle bones. It was abolished under the Qin and, after that, the same term was used for (and translated as) royal princes. The title was commonly given to members of the Emperor's family and could be inherited. A poem from about 2,500 years ago said "普天之下,莫非王土.率土之賓,莫非王臣" which roughly translates as "Under the sky, nothing isn't the king's land; the people who lead the lands, no one isn't the king's subjects."
Son of Heaven
"Son of Heaven" was a title of the Emperor based on the Mandate of Heaven. The Son of Heaven is a universal emperor who rules tianxia comprising "all under heaven".[1] The title was not interpreted literally. The monarch is a mortal chosen by Heaven, not its actual descendant.[2] The title comes from the Mandate of Heaven, created by the monarchs of the Zhou dynasty to justify deposing the Shang dynasty. They declared that Heaven had revoked the mandate from the Shang and given it to the Zhou in retaliation for their corruption and misrule. Heaven bestowed the mandate to whoever was best fit to rule. The title held the emperor responsible for the prosperity and security of his people through the threat of losing the mandate.[2]
Unlike the
Finally, it was generally not possible for a woman to succeed to the throne and in the history of China there has only been one reigning Empress, Wu Zetian (624–705 CE), who usurped the throne of the Tang dynasty.
Self-made titles
Xiang Yu styled himself Xīchǔ Bàwáng (西楚霸王, lit. Hegemon-King of Western Chu).
Non-Han titles taken by Chinese rulers
Monarchical titles
Chinese monarchs possessed an elaborate set of monarchical titles, both when they were alive and after their death. Based on Chinese historiographical convention, monarchs of China are typically referred to by one of their many titles, although it is not incorrect per se to reference them using other titles that they held. Even though exceptions exist, Chinese rulers until the end of the Sui dynasty are mainly referred to by their posthumous names, monarchs from the Tang dynasty to the Yuan dynasty are generally known by their temple names, while rulers from the Ming dynasty onwards are typically known by their era names. As some of these titles were used repeatedly throughout history, historians often reference the name of the regime to avoid potential confusion. The same monarchical tradition was adopted throughout the Chinese cultural sphere.
General format in Mandarin Chinese:
Regnal name
Regnal names (尊號; zūn hào) were monarchical titles adopted during the reign of monarchs or after their abdication. Due to naming taboo, regnal names were the most straightforward method Chinese rulers could be referred to during the rule of his/her regime.
Personal name (Surname + given name) |
Regnal name | Dynasty |
---|---|---|
Ying Zheng 嬴政 |
Shi Huangdi 始皇帝 |
Qin |
Wu Zhao 武曌 |
Emperor Cishi Yuegu Jinlun Shengshen 慈氏越古金輪聖神皇帝 |
Wu Zhou |
Liu Jiyuan 劉繼元 |
Emperor Yingwu 英武皇帝 |
Northern Han |
Zhao Heng 劉繼元 |
Emperor Yingtian Zundao Qinming Renxiao 應天尊道欽明仁孝皇帝 |
Northern Song
|
Yelü Dashi 耶律大石 |
Emperor Tianyou 天祐皇帝 |
Western Liao |
Borjigin Kublai 孛兒只斤·忽必烈 |
Emperor Xiantian Shudao Renwen Yiwu Daguang Xiao 憲天述道仁文義武大光孝皇帝 |
Yuan |
Era name
Era names (年號; nián hào) were proclaimed by Chinese sovereigns for the purpose of identifying and numbering years since 140 BC, during the reign of the Emperor Wu of Han.[4][5] Strictly speaking, era names were not personal titles of Chinese monarchs per se. However, as most rulers of the Ming and Qing dynasties adopted only one era name throughout the entirety of their reigns, era names have come to be closely associated with Ming and Qing monarchs, to the extent that they are frequently referenced using their respective era names by historians.
Although a specific era name could be used by one monarch only, there were also many instances in which an era name was used by multiple monarchs, or a monarch could proclaim numerous era names throughout his/her reign. For this reason, it would be tedious for Chinese monarchs before the Ming dynasty to be referred to by their era names.
Personal name (Surname + given name) |
Era name(s) | Dynasty |
---|---|---|
Cao Pi 曹丕 |
Huangchu 黃初 |
Cao Wei |
Fu Jian 苻堅 |
Yongxing 永興 Ganlu 甘露 Jianyuan 建元 |
Former Qin |
Xiao Fangzhi 蕭方智 |
Shaotai 紹泰 Taiping 太平 |
Liang |
Liu Yan 劉龑 |
Qianheng 乾亨 Bailong 白龍 Dayou 大有 |
Southern Han |
Li Liangzuo 李諒祚 |
Yansiningguo 延嗣寧國 Tianyouchuisheng 天祐垂聖 Fushengchengdao 福聖承道 Duodu 奲都 Gonghua 拱化 |
Western Xia |
Zhu Zhanji 朱瞻基 |
Xuande 宣德 |
Ming |
Temple name
Temple names (廟號; miào hào) were accorded to Chinese monarchs after their death, for the purpose of ancestor worship. Temple names consisted of two or three Chinese characters, with the last word being either zǔ (祖; "progenitor") or zōng (宗; "ancestor").
Personal name (Surname + given name) |
Temple name | Dynasty |
---|---|---|
Yuan Ziyou 元子攸 |
Jingzong 敬宗 |
Northern Wei |
Yang Jian 楊堅 |
Gaozu 高祖 |
Sui |
Li Dan 李旦 |
Ruizong 睿宗 |
Tang |
Wang Jipeng 王繼鵬 |
Kangzong 康宗 |
Min
|
Wanyan Sheng 完顏晟 |
Taizong 太宗 |
Jin |
Aisin Gioro Xuanye 愛新覺羅·玄燁 |
Shengzu 聖祖 |
Qing |
Posthumous name
Posthumous names (謚號; shì hào) were accorded to Chinese monarchs after their death. These were adjectives originally intended to determine the achievements and moral values, or the lack thereof, of one's life.
Personal name (Surname + given name) |
Posthumous name | Dynasty |
---|---|---|
Ji Yun 姬允 |
Duke Huan 桓公 |
Lu |
Mi Wan 芈完 |
King Kaolie 考烈王 |
Chu |
Liu Zhao 劉肇 |
Emperor Xiaohe 孝和皇帝 |
Eastern Han |
Qifu Qiangui 乞伏乾歸 |
Prince Wuyuan 武元王 |
Western Qin |
Zhu Yujian 朱聿鍵 |
Emperor Peitian Zhidao Hongyi Sumu Siwen Liewu Minren Guangxiao Xiang 配天至道弘毅肅穆思文烈武敏仁廣孝襄皇帝 |
Southern Ming |
Aisin Gioro Zaitian 愛新覺羅·載湉 |
Emperor Tongtian Chongyun Dazhong Zhizheng Jingwen Weiwu Renxiao Ruizhi Duanjian Kuanqin Jing 同天崇運大中至正經文緯武仁孝睿智端儉寬勤景皇帝 |
Qing |
Historiographical denomination
Historians sometimes refer to certain Chinese rulers using generic terms, mostly due to their lack of regnal name, temple name or posthumous name. These terms describe the circumstances of the monarchs and are not officially accorded by the regimes themselves. The monarchical rank held by the rulers is affixed to the back of these adjectives to form the full historiographical denominations. For example, "Fèidì" (廢帝) is formed from the amalgamation of "fèi" (廢; "deposed") and the abbreviated form of "huángdì" (皇帝; "emperor"), thus is used to refer to monarchs who were overthrown.
Historiographical term | Meaning |
---|---|
Shào 少 |
"Young" |
Yòu 幼 |
"Young" |
Fèi 廢 |
"Deposed" |
Xùn 遜 |
"Abdicated" |
Mò 末 |
"Final" |
See also
|
References
Citations
- ^ Ebrey 2010, p. 179.
- ^ a b Dull 1990, p. 59.
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 249.
- ISBN 9783906769561.
- ISBN 9788215001067.
Sources
- Yap, Joseph P. (2009). "Official Titles and Institutional Terms - Qin and Han" pp612–620 and Chapter 1. pp 38–39 in "Wars With The Xiongnu - A Translation From Zizhi tongjian" . AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4490-0605-1
- Dull, Jack (1990). "The Evolution of Government in China". Heritage of China: Contemporary Perspectives on Chinese Civilization. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06441-6.
- Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2010) [1996]. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12433-1.