Northern Wei
34°16′00″N 108°54′00″E / 34.2667°N 108.9000°E
Wei 魏 | |||||||||||||||||||
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386–535 | |||||||||||||||||||
Capital | Shengle (386–398, capital of former Dai, near modern Hohhot) Pingcheng (398–493) Luoyang (493–534) Chang'an (534–535) | ||||||||||||||||||
Common languages | Tuoba, Middle Chinese. | ||||||||||||||||||
Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||||||
Emperor | |||||||||||||||||||
• 386–409 | Emperor Daowu | ||||||||||||||||||
• 409–423 | Emperor Mingyuan | ||||||||||||||||||
• 424–452 | Emperor Taiwu | ||||||||||||||||||
• 452–465 | Emperor Wencheng | ||||||||||||||||||
• 471–499 | Emperor Xiaowen | ||||||||||||||||||
• 499–515 | Emperor Xuanwu | ||||||||||||||||||
• 528–530 | Emperor Xiaozhuang | ||||||||||||||||||
• 532–535 | Emperor Xiaowu | ||||||||||||||||||
History | |||||||||||||||||||
• Established | 20 February northern China 439 | | |||||||||||||||||
• Movement of capital to Luoyang | 25 October 493[3] | ||||||||||||||||||
• Erzhu Rong's massacre of ruling class | 17 May 528[4] | ||||||||||||||||||
• Establishment of Eastern Wei, marking division | 8 November[5] 535 | ||||||||||||||||||
• Emperor Xiaowu's death | 3 February 535[5] | ||||||||||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||||||||||
450[6] | 2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||
Currency | Chinese coin, Chinese cash | ||||||||||||||||||
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Today part of | China Mongolia |
Northern Wei | |
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Hanyu Pinyin | Běi Wèi |
Wade–Giles | Pei Wei |
Yue: Cantonese | |
Yale Romanization | Bāk Ngaih |
Jyutping | Bak1 Ngai6 |
Southern Min | |
Hokkien POJ | Pak Guī |
Part of a series on the |
History of China |
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Wei (/weɪ/), known in historiography as the Northern Wei (Chinese: 北魏; pinyin: Běi Wèi), Tuoba Wei (Chinese: 拓跋魏; pinyin: Tuòbá Wèi), Yuan Wei (Chinese: 元魏; pinyin: Yuán Wèi) and Later Wei (Chinese: 後魏; pinyin: Hòu Wèi), was an imperial dynasty of China ruled by the Tuoba (Tabgach) clan of the Xianbei. The first of the Northern dynasties, it ruled northern China from 386 to 535[7] during the period of the Northern and Southern dynasties. Described as "part of an era of political turbulence and intense social and cultural change",[8] the Northern Wei dynasty is particularly noted for unifying northern China in 439, bringing an end to the chaotic Sixteen Kingdoms period, and strengthening imperial control over the rural landscape via reforms in 485. This was also a period of introduced foreign ideas, such as Buddhism, which became firmly established. The Northern Wei was referred to as "Plaited Barbarians" (索虜; suǒlǔ) by writers of the Southern dynasties, who considered themselves the true upholders of Chinese culture.[9][10]
During the Taihe period (477–499), Empress Dowager Feng and Emperor Xiaowen instituted sweeping reforms that deepened the dynasty's control over the local population in the Han hinterland. Emperor Xiaowen also introduced changes that eventually led to the dynasty moving its capital from Datong to Luoyang, in 494. The Tuoba adopted the surname Yuan (元) as a part of systematic sinicization.
Many antiques and art works, both Taoist art and Buddhist art, from this period have survived. It was the time of the construction of the Yungang Grottoes near Datong during the mid-to-late fifth century, and towards the latter part of the dynasty, the Longmen Grottoes outside the later capital city of Luoyang, in which more than 30,000 Buddhist images from the time of this dynasty have been found.
Towards the end of the Northern Wei dynasty there was significant internal dissension, resulting in a split into the Eastern Wei and the Western Wei dynasties under the rule of the same imperial house in 534–535, which were soon replaced by the Northern Qi and the Northern Zhou dynasties respectively. While the rule of Tuoba clan ended in the mid-6th century CE, its important policies, in particular the political recentralization reforms under Empress Dowager Feng and ethnic integration under Emperor Xiaowen, had a long-lasting impact on later periods of Chinese history.
Rise of the Tuoba Xianbei
The Jin dynasty had developed an alliance with the Tuoba against the Xiongnu state Han-Zhao. In 315, the Tuoba chief, Tuoba Yilu was granted the title of Prince of Dai. After his death, however, the Dai state stagnated, and with the Jin ejected from northern China, the Dai largely remained a partial ally and a partial tributary state to Later Zhao and Former Yan, finally falling to Former Qin in 376.
After Former Qin's emperor
At first, the Northern Wei was internally unstable and allied with the stronger Xianbei-led Later Yan dynasty that ruled most of present-day Hebei and Liaoning. As Wei grew in power by subjugating neighbouring tribes, their alliance came to and end in 391, when Tuoba Gui refused to send more tribute after Yan detained his brother at their capital, and the Wei re-aligned themselves with the Western Yan in Shanxi. Wei continued hostilities even after Western Yan fell in 394, and in 395, the Later Yan emperor, Murong Chui, sent his Crown Prince, Murong Bao, with a massive army to lead a punitive expedition against Wei. However, at the Battle of Canhe Slope, Tuoba Gui inflicted the Later Yan army a heavy defeat.
In 396, Murong Chui personally led another campaign against Wei, but though he was initially successful, the Yan troops withdrew after he became deathly ill, and he soon died on his way back. Shortly after Murong Bao ascended the throne, Tuoba Gui began an invasion on Later Yan. During the invasion, Murong Bao decided to concentrate his forces in his capital and major cities, allowing the Wei forces to quickly overrun the Central Plains. A disastrous defeat at the Battle of Baisi and infighting among the imperial family finally forced the Later Yan to evacuate to Liaoning, while a branch in the south founded the Southern Yan in 398 before escaping to Shandong.
With a strong foothold on the Central Plains and the Yan state split into two, Northern Wei became a regional power in northeastern China, competing with the
Unification of Northern China
In 423, Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei ascended the throne and sought to reunify northern China. In 426, he made the Xiongnu-led Hu Xia dynasty his target. He sent his generals to attack Puban (modern Yuncheng) and Shancheng (modern Sanmenxia), while he himself laid siege to the Hu Xia's heavily fortified capital of Tongwancheng. Tongwancheng fell in 427, forcing the Hu Xia emperor Helian Chang to flee westward. Nevertheless, he was captured in 428 and his brother, Helian Ding, took over as the emperor of Hu Xia.
In fall of 430, while Helian Ding was engaging the Western Qin dynasty, the Northern Wei made a surprise attack on the new Hu Xia capital Pingliang and conquered the state.
In summer 432, Emperor Taiwu, with Hu Xia destroyed, began to attack the Northern Yan dynasty and its capital Helong (和龍, in modern Jinzhou, Liaoning) under siege. He chose to withdraw at the start of winter and would launch yearly attacks against the Northern Yan to weaken it gradually over the next few years. In 436 the Northern Yan emperor Feng Hong (Emperor Zhaocheng) had to evacuate his state and fled to Goguryeo, ending the Northern Yan.
In 439, the Northern Wei launched a major attack on the Northern Liang dynasty, capturing its capital Guzang (modern Wuwei, Gansu) . By 441, the entirety of the Northern Liang was under the Northern Wei. Thus, northern China was unified under Emperor Taiwu, ending the Sixteen Kingdoms era and beginning the Northern and Southern dynasties era.
In 446, an ethnic Qiang rebellion was crushed by the Northern Wei. Wang Yu (王遇) was an ethnic Qiang eunuch and he may have been castrated during the rebellion since the Northern Wei would castrate the rebel tribe's young elite. Fengyi prefecture's Lirun town according to the Book of Wei was where Wang Yu was born. Lirun was northeast of Xi'an by 100 miles (160 km) and modern day Chengcheng stands at its site. Wang Yu patronized Buddhism and in 488 had a temple constructed in his birthplace.[11]: 23
Wars with the Southern dynasties
War with Liu Song
War between Northern Wei and Han-ruled
In 450, Emperor Wen attempted to destroy the Northern Wei by himself and launched a massive invasion. Although initially successful, the campaign turned into a disaster. The Wei lured the Liu Song to cross the Yellow River, and then flanked them, destroying the Eastern army.
As the Liu Song armies retreated, Emperor Taiwu of Wei ordered his troop to move south. The provinces south of the Yellow River were devastated by the Wei army. Only Huatai, a fortified city, held out against the Wei. Wei troops retreated in January 451, however, the economic damage to the Song was immense. Emperor Wen made another attempt to conquer Northern Wei in 452, but failed again. On returning to the capital, he was assassinated by the heir apparent, Liu Shao.
In 466,
War with Southern Qi
In 479,
Wei troops began to attack
Multiple sieges and skirmishes were fought until 481 but the war was without any major campaign. A peace treaty was signed in 490 with the Emperor Wu.
War with Liang
In 502, the Southern Qi general
As soon as 503 AD, the Northern Wei was hoping to restore the Southern Qi throne. Their plan was to install Xiao Baoyin, a Southern Qi prince, to become emperor of the puppet state. A southern expedition was led by Prince Yuan Cheng of Wei and Chen Bozhi, a former Qi general. Until spring 505, Xinyang and Hanzhong were fallen to the Northern Wei.
In 505, Emperor Wu began the Liang offensive. A strong army was quickly amassed under the general Wei Rui and caught the Wei by surprise, calling it the strongest army they have seen from the Southern dynasties in a hundred years. In spring 506, Wei Rui was able to capture Hefei. In fall 506, Wei Rui attacked the Northern Wei army stationed at Luokou for nearly a year without advancing. However, when Wei army gathered, Xiao Hong Prince of Linchuan, the Liang commander and younger brother of Emperor Wu, escaped in fear, causing his army to collapse without a battle. Northern Wei forces next attacked the fortress of Zhongli (鍾離, in modern Bengbu), However, they were defeated by a Liang army commanded by Wei Rui and Cao Jingzong, effectively ending the war. After the Battle of Zhongli, there would continue to be border battles from time to time, but no large-scale war for years.
In 524, while Northern Wei is plagued by agrarian rebellions to the north and west, Emperor Wu launched a number of attacks on Wei's southern territory. Liang forces largely met little resistance. In spring 525, the Northern Wei general Yuan Faseng (元法僧) surrendered the key city of Pengcheng (彭城, in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu) to Liang. However, in summer 525, Emperor Wu's son Prince Xiao Zong (蕭綜), grew suspicions that he was actually the son of Southern Qi's emperor Xiao Baojuan (because his mother Consort Wu was formerly Xiao Baojuan's concubine and had given birth to him only seven months after she became Emperor Wu's concubine), surrendered Pengcheng to Northern Wei, ending Liang's advances in the northeast, although in summer 526, Shouyang fell to Liang troops after Emperor Wu successfully reemployed the damming strategy. For the next several years, Liang continued to make minor gains on the borders with Northern Wei.
In 528, after a coup in Northern Wei, with the warlord Erzhu Rong overthrowing Empress Dowager Hu, a number of Northern Wei officials, including Yuan Yue, Yuan Yu, and Yuan Hao fled and surrendered territories they controlled to Liang. In winter 528, Emperor Wu created Yuan Hao the Prince of Wei—intending to have him lay claim to the Northern Wei throne and, if successful, become a Liang vassal. He commissioned his general Chen Qingzhi (陳慶之) with an army to escort Yuan Hao back to Northern Wei. Despite the small size of Chen's army, he won battle after battle, and in spring 529, after Chen captured Suiyang (modern Shangqiu). Yuan Hao, with Emperor Wu's approve, proclaimed himself the emperor of Northern Wei. In summer 529, troops under Erzhu unable to stand up to Chen Qingzhi, forcing Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei to flee the capital Luoyang. After capturing Luoyang, Yuan Hao secretly wanted to rebel against Liang: when Chen Qingzhi requested Emperor Wu to send reinforcements, Yuan Hao sent Emperor Wu a submission advising against it, and Emperor Wu, believing Yuan Hao, did not send additional troops. Soon, Erzhu and Emperor Xiaozhuang counterattacked, and Luoyang fell. Yuan Hao fled and was killed in flight, and Chen's own army was destroyed, although Chen himself was able to flee back to Liang.
In 530, Emperor Wu made another attempt to establish a vassal regime in Northern Wei by creating Yuan Yue the Prince of Wei, and commissioning Yuan Yue's uncle Fan Zun (范遵) with an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei. Yuan Yue made some advances, particularly in light of the disturbance precipitated soon thereafter when Emperor Xiaozhuang ambushed and killed Erzhu Rong and was in turn overthrown by Erzhu Rong's nephew Erzhu Zhao and cousin Erzhu Shilong. However, Yuan Yue realized that the Erzhus then became firmly in control of Luoyang and that he would be unable to defeat them, and so returned to Liang in winter 530.
In 532, with Northern Wei again in civil war after the general Gao Huan rose against the Erzhus, Emperor Wu against sent an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei, and subsequently, Gao Huan welcomed Yuan Yue, but then decided against making Yuan Yue emperor. Subsequently, Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei, whom Gao made emperor, had Yuan Yue executed.
With Northern Wei divided into Eastern Wei and Western Wei in light of Emperor Xiaowu's flight, Emperor Wu initially continued to send his forces to make minor territorial gains on the borders, against both Eastern Wei and Western Wei, for several years.
Policies
Early in Northern Wei history, the state inherited a number of traditions from its initial history as a Xianbei tribe, and some of the more unusual ones, from a traditional Chinese standpoint, were:
- The salaries until Empress Dowager Fengtook power, but were expected to requisition the necessities of their lives directly from the people they governed. As Northern Wei Empire's history progressed, this appeared to be a major contributing factor leading to corruption among officials. Not until the second century of the empire's existence did the state begin to distribute salaries to its officials.
- Empresses were not named according to imperial favors or nobility of birth, but required that the candidates submit themselves to a ceremony where they had to personally forge golden statues, as a way of discerning divine favor. Only an imperial consort who was successful in forging a golden statue could become the empress.
- All men, regardless of ethnicity, were ordered to tie their hair into a single braid that would then be rolled and placed on top of the head, and then have a cap worn over the head.
- When a concubine Consort Zhao, the mother of his youngest son Liu Fuling(the eventual Emperor Zhao), before naming Prince Fuling crown prince.
- As a result, because emperors would not have mothers, they often honored their Nurse Empress Dowager" (保太后, bǎo tài hòu).
As Sinicization of the Northern Wei state progressed, these customs and traditions were gradually abandoned.
After building a Chinese-style capital at Ye, Tuoba Gui sought to break the autonomy of the tribes. He reorganised the people into eight artificial tribes forcibly settled around the capital, which served as military units. He also removed the traditional tribal leaders. These reforms helped to change tribal loyalties and strengthen their loyalty to the dynasty. These tribes served as the Emperor's personal professional military caste which helped to sustain the dynasty against any threats.[14]
The Reform under Empress Dowager Feng
After securing Xianbei hegemony in the hinterland of China, the North Wei regime, under the rule of Empress Dowager Feng (438-490; also known as Empress Dowager Wenming) implemented a package of reforms in 485-486 AD, greatly solidifying its fiscal foundations and strengthening state penetration to the local society.
This reform introduced two far-reaching policies, namely, the "equal-field landholding system", and the "three-elder system". In the new "equal-filed system" (juntian zhi) unveiled in 485, the state redistributed abandoned or uncultivated land to commoner subjects attached with obligations of tax duty in the forms of grain, cloth, and labor service. In principle, each household was entitled to lands proportional to its labor power. Specifically, two types of land with tenure were assigned to a household: the first was open land for crop cultivation (40 mu [a]) for each adult male in the household, and half those amounts for adult females which was returnable after the recipient reached a specific advanced age or died. The second was the land to support textile production (10 or 20 mu, [b] with the same gender distribution principle as open land) in one of two forms, namely, "mulberry lands" in silk-producing areas, and "hemp lands" in regions where sericulture was infeasible. Importantly, mulberry land was inheritable because of the long-term investment and care mulberry orchards required. Households possessing slaves and plow oxen were entitled to substantially larger allocations. The open land allocations would be doubled or tripled in areas where the land was less fertile or the population sparse. Sale of these land grants was forbidden, although subleasing was permitted under some circumstances. Land allocations would be adjusted annually to account for changes in the composition of the household and its number of oxen.[15]: 297–311
Another policy was the establishment of the three-elders system (sanzhang-zhi) in 486, which was designed to compile accurate population registers and to integrate village society into the state administration. In this system, five households were to make up one neighborhood (li), headed by one neighborhood elder (linzhang) while five neighborhoods were grouped into a village and headed by one village elder (lizhang). Finally, over five villages, there was one ward elder (dangzhang). The three elders, appointed by the government, were responsible for detecting and re-registering population outside of state accounts, requisitioning corvee labor and taxes, and taking care of the poor and orphaned under their jurisdiction. This policy significantly bolstered the state's control over the common people.[16]
The reforms of Empress Dowager Feng boosted agricultural production and tax receipts on a long-term basis, and broke the economic power of local aristocrats who sheltered residents under their control living in fortified villages that dotted the rural landscape of the North from taxation. The Northern Wei dynasty had doubled the registered population to more than 5 million households since the reforms.[17][18]
These institutional infrastructures erected by the Northern Wei state survived the fall of the dynasty and paved the way for China's eventual unification in 589 AD under the Sui dynasty.
Later reforms
The Northern Wei used the previous dynasties' Nine-rank system as a way of assigning official positions to wealthy and prestigious Han Chinese families, according to hereditary rank. Officials were also given considerable autonomy, such as appointing subordinate officials.[19]
Deportations
During the reign of
Year | People | Number | Destination |
---|---|---|---|
398 | Xianbei of Hebei and Northern Shandong | 100,000 | Datong |
399 | Great Chinese families | 2,000 families | Datong |
399 | Chinese peasants from Henan | 100,000 | Shanxi |
418 | Xianbei of Hebei | ? | Datong |
427 | Pop. of the Kingdom of Xia | 10,000 | Shanxi |
432 | Pop. of Liaoning | 30,000 families | Hebei |
435 | Pop. of Shaanxi and Gansu | ? | Datong |
445 | Chinese peasants from Henan and Shandong | ? | North of Yellow River |
449 | Craftsmen from Chang'an | 2,000 families | Datong |
Sinicization
As the Northern Wei state grew, the emperors' desire for
The Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the
When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Han Chinese Jin prince Sima Chuzhi (司馬楚之) as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong (司馬金龍). Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong.[11]: 18
The Northern Wei's Eight Noble Xianbei surnames (八大贵族) were the Buliugu (步六孤), Helai (賀賴), Dugu (獨孤), Helou (賀樓), Huniu (忽忸), Qiumu (丘穆), Gexi (紇奚), and Yuchi (尉遲). They adopted Chinese last names.
Kongzi was honoured in sacrifices as was Earth and Heaven by the northern dynasties of non-Han origin.[31]: 132 Kongzi was honored by the Murong Wei Former Yan Xianbei leader.[31]: 134 Kongzi was honored by the Di ruler Fu Jian (337–385).[31]: 135 Kongzi was honored in sacrifices by the Northern Wei Xianbei dynasty. Kongzi was honored by Yuoba Si, the Mingyuan emperor.[31]: 140 Han dynasty emperors, Shang dynasty ruler Bigan, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun were honored by Yuoba Si, the Mingyuan Emperor. Kongzi was honored extensively by Tuoba Hong, the Xiaowen Emperor.[31]: 141
A fief of 100 households and the rank of (崇聖侯) Marquis who worships the sage was bestowed upon a Confucius descendant, Yan Hui's lineage had 2 of its scions and Confucius's lineage had 4 of its scions who had ranks bestowed on them in Shandong in 495 and a fief of ten households and rank of (崇聖大夫) Grandee who venerates the sage was bestowed on Kong Sheng (孔乘) who was Confucius's scion in the 28th generation in 472 by Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei.[32]: 257
An anti-Buddhist plan was concocted by the Celestial Masters under Kou Qianzhi along with Cui Hao under the Taiwu Emperor.[33]: 533 The Celestial Masters of the north urged the persecution of Buddhists under the Taiwu Emperor in the Northern Wei, attacking Buddhism and the Buddha as wicked and as anti-stability and anti-family.[33]: 534 Anti Buddhism was the position of Kou Qianzhi.[33]: 535 There was no ban on the Celestial Masters despite the nonfullfilment of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi's agenda in their anti-Buddhist campaign.[33]: 539
Cui Zhen's wife Han Farong was buried in a Datong located grave.[34]
Building the Great Wall
To resist the threats posed by the
Governance
Local society in northern China was not governed by civil bureaucrats but by military clientage during the reign of the Northern Wei Xianbei emperors, with the local Han Chinese aristocratic families jointly ruling and controlling power with them. The Han Chinese aristocrat families ruled over their private fiefs (home jurisdictions) with large military authority and civil authority as entrusted to them by the Xianbei emperor. The Xianbei emperor also turned their own Xianbei nomad warriors into a hereditary military caste and extinguish their tribal loyalties. To the consternation of the Xianbei nobles, Han Chinese aristocrats started to be appointed to government positions by the Northern Wei emperors when the Central Plains population regrew in the middle of the 5th century.
Han Chinese commoners started pledging their allegiance as buqu (部曲) (armed retainers) to elite Han Chinese aristocratic magnates in their wubao (塢堡) (fortified settlements) when the local communities relied on the magnates to direct their defense after the 311 sack of Luoyang. Oaths were pledged in alliances between paramount commanders who joined their fortress villages together in leagues.[15]: 170 The magnates retained the services and fealty of their thrall retainers after the fighting was over. Subject to the emperor was overtaken by the concept of village membership. Magnates had both unrelated bondsmen, private clients and fellow clan kinsmen in their armies. 50 to 60 square leagues of farmland in Hebei's southwest Taihang mountain foothills were taken as a fief by thousands of members of the Han Chinese aristocratic Zhaojun Li clan under the leader of a cadet leader of the clan, Li Xianfu. Clan loyalties were extensively utilized by local magnates.[15]: 171 Li Xianfu was appointed as zongzhu (宗主) (clan chief) by the clan collectively in spite of him not inheriting the officer and rank of his father which went to his elder brother. Local level order was controlled by Li Xiangu and other magnates and the Northern Wei Xianbei monarchs had to rely on them. The Northern Wei gave them title of governors officially in their fiefs.
In Shanxi and Hebei the magnate clans became even more powerful and local society was dominated by them and they experienced increased solidarity due to Northern Wei patronage. These arrangement with local Han Chinese aristocratic magnate clans led to a lack of soldiers and revenue directly under the control of the Northern Wei state itself. Particularly after the 460s when Liu Song held Huaibei and Shandong were taken by the Northern Wei they needed soldiers and tax revenue. Nobles, officials and meritorious generals received large amounts of lihu (隸戶) or tongli (僮隸) (bondservants) from war captives in according with Xianbei nomad tradition during wars. These bondservants, compared to the past, made up a large part of the farming population under Northern Wei. The zahu (雜戶) (service households) made out of artisans, weavers, salt makers, entertainers, clerks were also turned into hereditary occupations among war captives captured by Northern Wei, while privately entertainers and craftsmen were also attached to magnate families. The few independent farmers under Northern Wei were subjected to the demands of corvée labor from the states due to the fact that Xianbei noble and Han Chinese aristocratic households controlled the majority of the population as retainers.
The Northern Wei attempted to back up its thinly stretched Xianbei warriors by conscription Han Chinese free subjects into their military in 473 but this only let to the magnates gaining more private client retainers as the Han Chinese farmers chose to became retainers to evade the conscription and corvée. These were the regions for the reforms under Empress Dowager Wenming (438-90)[15]: 172 when she tried to turn the state into a Han Chinese style bureaucratic centralized empire. She reigned as regent for her grandson Emperor Xiaowen and brought into the Northern Wei government Han Chinese aristocrats. The capital was moved to the Central Plain's Luoyang away from Pingcheng in 493 by Emperor Xiaowen.[15]: 173
The system of having retainers (buqu) existed in the Xin dynasty to the Tang dynasty and was part of the Northern Wei.[36]
Disunity and breakup
The fall of Northern Wei began with rebellions staged by Six Garrison populations. This rebellion was rooted in the internal struggle within the Six Garrisons between upper-class military elites and lower-class soldiers and ethnic settlers. Six Garrisons were established to protect the Northern Wei regime from the invasion of Rouran and consisted of numerous ethnic groups, such as Xianbei, Gaoche, and Xiongnu as well as Han Chinese. Tribes were the basic social units, although grouped into militarized garrisons. The upper-class military elites who occupied governing offices mainly included the middle-to-low aristocrats of the Xianbei, other tribe chiefs, and Han strongmen. The internal conflict between upper-class military elites and lower-class soldiers and ethnic settlers was on the basis of the vulnerable economic base (heavily relied on livestock production and the support from the central government) and harsh environmental conditions in Six Garrison areas. The struggle for survival drove military officers of Six Garrisons to implement unfair policies biased to their own ethnic groups at the cost of others.[37] The cause of these wars was the growing rift between the governing aristocracy which was increasingly adopting Han-style sedentary policies and lifestyles and their nomadic tribal armies who continued to preserve the old steppe way of life.[38]
Six Frontier Towns rebellions
Rebellions broke out on six major garrison-towns on the northern border and spread like wildfire throughout the north. These rebellions lasted for a decade.
In 523, nomadic Rouran tribes suffered a major famine due to successive years of drought. In April, the Rouran Khan sent troops to raid the Wei territory. People of the town rose up and killed the town's commander. Rebellion soon broke out against across the region. In Woye, Poliuhan Baling (破六韓拔陵) became a rebel leader. His army quickly took Woye and laid siege to Wuchuan and Huaishuo.
Elsewhere in Qinzhou (Gansu), Qiang ethnic leaders such as Mozhe Dati (莫折大提) also rose up against the government. In Gaoping (present-day Guyuan), Hu Chen (胡琛) and the Xiongnu rebelled and titled himself the King of Gaoping. In Hebei, Ge Rong rebelled, proclaiming himself the Emperor of Qi.
The Poliuhan Baling rebellion was defeated in 525. Similar rebellions had spread to other regions such as Hebei and Guanzhong and were pacified by 530.
Rise of Erzhu Rong and Heyin Massacre
Exacerbating the situation,
In 529, Liang general Chen Qingzhi sacked Luoyang, forced Emperor Xiaozhuang to flee and claimed Yuan Hao another grandson of Emperor Xianwen emperor, before his final defeat by Erzhu Rong.
Civil war and the two generals
The Erzhu clan dominated the imperial court thereafter, the emperor held power in name only and most decisions actually went through the Erzhus. The emperor did stop most of the rebellions, largely reunifying the Northern Wei state. However, Emperor Xiaozhuang, not wishing to remain a puppet emperor and highly wary of the Erzhu clan's widespread power and questionable loyalty and intentions towards the throne (after all, this man had ordered a massacre of the court and put to death a previous emperor and empress before), killed Erzhu Rong in 530 in an ambush at the palace, which led to a resumption of civil war, initially between Erzhu's clan and Emperor Xiaozhuang, and then, after their victory over Emperor Xiaozhuang in 531, between the Erzhu clan and those who resisted their rule. In the aftermath of these wars, two generals set in motion the actions that would result in the splitting of the Northern Wei into the Eastern and Western Wei.
General
Fall
Neither Eastern Wei nor Western Wei was long-lived.[43] In 550, Gao Huan's son Gao Yang forced Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei to yield the throne to him, ending Eastern Wei and establishing the Northern Qi. Similarly, in 557, Yuwen Tai's nephew Yuwen Hu forced Emperor Gong of Western Wei to yield the throne to Yuwen Tai's son Yuwen Jue, ending the Western Wei and establishing the Northern Zhou. In 581, the Northern Zhou official Yang Jian had the emperor to yield the throne to him, establishing the Sui dynasty.
Legacy and culture
The Northern Wei dynasty was the most long-lived and most powerful of the northern dynasties prior to the reunification of China by the Sui dynasty. Its most important legacy was the sweeping reforms introduced under Empress Dowager Feng and continued under her successors. While the dynasty officially ended in 557, these reforms, especially the equal-field landholding system, lasted until the mid-eight century CE. The reforms completely reshaped China's political development as they reverted the trends associated with feudalism in earlier times (c. second to fifth centuries CE) such as the devolution of power to local strongmen and political fragmentation. Historians generally credit the Northern Wei dynasty for laying the foundation for China's eventual reunification under the Sui dynasty. Ray Huang, for example, pointed out that these reforms brought about the "infrastructure of a regenerated empire" and new rulers after Northern Wei, such as Yang Jian of the Sui dynasty, would inherit "the bulk of the agricultural resources and the peasant manpower" made available via the reforms to reunify the whole of China.[44]
Many of the most important heritages of China, such as the
The legend of
Central Asian influences
Northern Wei art came under influence of Indian and Central Asian traditions through the mean of trade routes. A Central Asian (胡) named An Ton (安同), a descendant of the
Also, when the Northern Wei defeated the Northern Liang in 439 CE, they captured a great number of Sogdian merchants from their capital Wuwei, and resettled them in their own capital at Datong, thereby fostering trade.[48]-
Gilt silver from Central Asia, Northern Wei tomb
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Sasanian silver coins from Central Asia, Northern Wei tomb
Sovereigns of the Northern Wei dynasty
Posthumous name | Personal name | Period of reign | Era names
|
---|---|---|---|
Daowu | Tuoba Gui | 386–409 | Dengguo (登國) 386–396 Huangshi (皇始) 396–398 Tianxing (天興) 398–404 Tianci (天賜) 404–409 |
Mingyuan | Tuoba Si | 409–423 | Yongxing (永興) 409–413 Shenrui (神瑞) 414–416 Taichang (泰常) 416–423 |
Taiwu | Tuoba Tao | 424–452 | Shiguang (始光) 424–428 Shenjia (神䴥) 428–431 Yanhe (延和) 432–434 Taiyan (太延) 435–440 Taipingzhenjun (太平真君) 440–451 Zhengping (正平) 451–452 |
– | Tuoba Yu | 452 | Chengping (承平) 452 |
Wencheng | Tuoba Jun | 452–465 | Xing'an (興安) 452–454 Xingguang (興光) 454–455 Tai'an (太安) 455–459 Heping (和平) 460–465 |
Xianwen | Tuoba Hong | 466–471 | Tian'an (天安) 466–467 Huangxing (皇興) 467–471 |
Xiaowen | Tuoba Hong Yuan Hong[d] |
471–499 | Yanxing (延興) 471–476 Chengming (承明) 476 Taihe (太和) 477–499 |
Xuanwu | Yuan Ke | 499–515 | Jingming (景明) 500–503 Zhengshi (正始) 504–508 Yongping (永平) 508–512 Yanchang (延昌) 512–515 |
Xiaoming | Yuan Xu | 516–528 | Xiping (熙平) 516–518 Shengui (神龜) 518–520 Zhengguang (正光) 520–525 Xiaochang (孝昌) 525–527 Wutai (武泰) 528 |
– | Yuan Zhao[e] | 528 | – |
Xiaozhuang | Yuan Ziyou | 528–530[f] | Jianyi (建義) 528 Yongan (永安) 528–530 |
– | Yuan Ye | 530–531 | Jianming (建明) 530–531 |
Jiemin | Yuan Gong | 531–532 | Putai (普泰) 531–532 |
– | Yuan Lang | 531–532 | Zhongxing (中興) 531–532 |
Xiaowu | Yuan Xiu | 532–535 | Taichang (太昌) 532 Yongxing (永興) 532 Yongxi (永熙) 532–535 |
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A Buddhiststelafrom the Northern Wei period, built in the early sixth century.
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Northern Wei wall murals and painted figurines, Yungang Grottoes, fifth to sixth centuries
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Cavalry of the Northern and Southern dynasties
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Northern Wei cavalry
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Northern Wei cavalry
Further reading
- Pearce, Scott. 2023. Northern Wei (386-534): A New Form of Empire in East Asia. Oxford University Press.
See also
Notes
- ^ around 1.1 hectares or 2.7 acres
- ^ around 0.28 hectares or 0.68 acres to 0.46 hectares or 1.36 acres
- ^ 1,300 or 2000 according to different versions of the Book of Wei[41]
- ^ The imperial Tuoba family changed their family name to Yuan (元) during the reign of Emperor Xiaowen in 496 so their names in this table will also thus be "Yuan" subsequently.
- ^ Empress Dowager Hu initially declared Emperor Xiaoming's "son" (actually a daughter) emperor, but almost immediately after admitted that she was actually female and declared Yuan Zhao emperor instead. Emperor Xiaoming's unnamed daughter was therefore arguably an "emperor" and his successor, but is not commonly regarded as one. Indeed, Yuan Zhao himself is often not considered an emperor.
- ^ The Northern Wei imperial prince Yuan Hao, under support by rival Liang dynasty's troops, declared himself emperor and captured the capital Luoyang in 529, forcing Emperor Xiaozhuang to flee. Yuan Hao carried imperial title and received pledges of allegiance from provinces south of the Yellow River for about three months before Erzhu Rong recaptured Luoyang. Yuan Hao fled and was killed in flight. Due to the briefness of Yuan Hao's claim on the throne and the limited geographic scope of his reign, he is usually not counted among the succession of Northern Wei emperors.
References
Citations
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 106.
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 110.
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 138.
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 152.
- ^ a b Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 156.
- ^ Rein Taagepera "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.", Social Science History Vol. 3, 115–138 (1979)
- ISBN 9780674018280.
- ^ Katherine R. Tsiang, p. 222
- ISBN 978-1-000-28314-3.
- ^ Liu, Puning (2018). "Song scholars' views on the Northern Wei legitimacy dispute". Archiv Orientální. 86: 112.
- ^ ISBN 1588391264.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ISBN 978-0-300-07404-8.
- JSTOR 3249674.
- ISBN 9780674060357.
- ^ ISBN 9781139343848.
- ^ ISBN 0-521-24130-8
- ISBN 1107020778
- ISBN 978-1107020771.
- ISBN 9781133709251.
- ^ Liu, Xinru (2010). The Silkroad in World History. Oxford University Press. p. 77.
- ISBN 978-0-520-07124-7.
- ^ Tang, Qiaomei (May 2016). Divorce and the Divorced Woman in Early Medieval China (First through Sixth Century) (PDF) (A dissertation presented by Qiaomei Tang to The Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of East Asian Languages and Civilizations). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University. pp. 151, 152, 153.
- ^ Papers on Far Eastern History. Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History. 1983. p. 86.
- ISBN 978-1538117972.
- ISBN 978-1442271661.
- ISBN 978-0231531009.
- ^ Australian National University. Dept. of Far Eastern History (1983). Papers on Far Eastern History, Volumes 27–30. Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History. pp. 86, 87, 88.
- JSTOR 2718246.
- ISBN 978-90-04-27185-2.
- ISBN 978-1351565219.
... Southern Song.105 We read the story of a certain Zhang Huan 張歡 in the Zhoushu, who married a sister of Emperor Xiaowu 宣武帝 of the Northern Wei (r.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-474-2929-6.
- ISBN 978-90-474-2929-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-17585-3.
- LiveScience. Retrieved 2024-03-18.. 2016-08-17. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
- "Elaborate Tomb Discovered in China". Archaeology
It is evident that when the Northern Wei defeated Northern Liang and seized its capital (439), they captured a large number of Sogdian merchants living in Wuwei and resettled them in Pingcheng (present-day Datong), the capital of the Northern Wei.
Sources
- Book of Wei.
- Jenner, W. J. F.Memories of Loyang: Yang Hsuan-chih and the lost capital (493–534). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981.
- History of Northern Dynasties.
- Tsiang, Katherine R. "Changing Patterns of Divinity and Reform in the Late Northern Wei" in The Art Bulletin, Vol. 84 No. 2 (June 2002), pp. 222–245.
- Zizhi Tongjian.
External links
- Media related to Northern Wei Dynasty at Wikimedia Commons