Integrated circuit

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"Silicon chip" redirects here. For the electronics magazine, see Silicon Chip.
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LCDs. The pinouts
are the dark circles surrounding the integrated circuit.

An integrated circuit, also known as a microchip, chip or IC, is a small electronic device made up of multiple interconnected electronic components such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors. These components are etched onto a small piece of semiconductor material, usually silicon. Integrated circuits are used in a wide range of electronic devices, including computers, smartphones, and televisions, to perform various functions such as processing and storing information. They have greatly impacted the field of electronics by enabling device miniaturization and enhanced functionality.

Integrated circuits are orders of magnitude smaller, faster, and less expensive than those constructed of discrete components, allowing a large transistor count.

The IC's

computer processors and microcontrollers
.

Very-large-scale integration was made practical by technological advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. Since their origins in the 1960s, the size, speed, and capacity of chips have progressed enormously, driven by technical advances that fit more and more transistors on chips of the same size – a modern chip may have many billions of transistors in an area the size of a human fingernail. These advances, roughly following Moore's law
, make the computer chips of today possess millions of times the capacity and thousands of times the speed of the computer chips of the early 1970s.

ICs have three main advantages over circuits constructed out of discrete components: size, cost and performance. The size and cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore, packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high because the IC's components switch quickly and consume comparatively little power because of their small size and proximity. The main disadvantage of ICs is the high initial cost of designing them and the enormous capital cost of factory construction. This high initial cost means ICs are only commercially viable when high production volumes are anticipated.

Terminology

An integrated circuit is defined as:

3D IC, 2.5D IC, MCM, thin-film transistors, thick-film technologies, or hybrid integrated circuits. The choice of terminology frequently appears in discussions related to whether Moore's Law is obsolete.

Jack Kilby's original integrated circuit. The world's first IC. Made from germanium
with gold-wire interconnects.

History

An early attempt at combining several components in one device (like modern ICs) was the Loewe 3NF vacuum tube first made in 1926.[4][5] Unlike ICs, it was designed with the purpose of tax avoidance, as in Germany, radio receivers had a tax that was levied depending on how many tube holders a radio receiver had. It allowed radio receivers to have a single tube holder. One million were manufactured, and were "a first step in integration of radioelectronic devices".[6] The device contained an amplifier, composed of three triodes, two capacitors and four resistors in a six-pin device.[7]

Early concepts of an integrated circuit go back to 1949, when German engineer

Siemens AG)[9] filed a patent for an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor amplifying device[10] showing five transistors on a common substrate in a three-stage amplifier arrangement. Jacobi disclosed small and cheap hearing aids
as typical industrial applications of his patent. An immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported.

Another early proponent of the concept was

Electrotechnical Laboratory) proposed similar chip designs where several transistors could share a common active area, but there was no electrical isolation to separate them from each other.[8]

The monolithic integrated circuit chip was enabled by the inventions of the planar process by Jean Hoerni and p–n junction isolation by Kurt Lehovec. Hoerni's invention was built on Mohamed M. Atalla's work on surface passivation, as well as Fuller and Ditzenberger's work on the diffusion of boron and phosphorus impurities into silicon, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick's work on surface protection, and Chih-Tang Sah's work on diffusion masking by the oxide.[12]

The first integrated circuits

Main article: Invention of the integrated circuit
See also:
Surface passivation
Robert Noyce invented the first monolithic integrated circuit in 1959. The chip was made from silicon.

A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic substrates (so-called micromodules),[13] each containing a single miniaturized component. Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which seemed very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby[13] and led to the short-lived Micromodule Program (similar to 1951's Project Tinkertoy).[13][14][15] However, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design: the IC.

Newly employed by

US Air Force.[19] Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in physics for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit.[20]

However, Kilby's invention was not a true monolithic integrated circuit chip since it had external gold-wire connections, which would have made it difficult to mass-produce.[21] Half a year after Kilby, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor invented the first true monolithic IC chip.[22][21] More practical than Kilby's implementation, Noyce's chip was made of silicon, whereas Kilby's was made of germanium, and Noyce's was fabricated using the planar process, developed in early 1959 by his colleague Jean Hoerni and included the critical on-chip aluminum interconnecting lines. Modern IC chips are based on Noyce's monolithic IC,[22][21] rather than Kilby's.

NASA's Apollo Program was the largest single consumer of integrated circuits between 1961 and 1965.[23]

TTL integrated circuits

Main article: Transistor–transistor logic

Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) was developed by James L. Buie in the early 1960s at TRW Inc. TTL became the dominant integrated circuit technology during the 1970s to early 1980s.[24]

Dozens of TTL integrated circuits were a standard method of construction for the

IBM 360 mainframes, PDP-11 minicomputers and the desktop Datapoint 2200 were built from bipolar integrated circuits,[25] either TTL or the even faster emitter-coupled logic
(ECL).

MOS integrated circuits

Further information:
MOSFET applications § MOS integrated circuit
See also: List of semiconductor scale examples, Mixed-signal integrated circuit, Moore's law, Three-dimensional integrated circuit, Transistor count, and Very Large Scale Integration

Nearly all modern IC chips are

list of IEEE milestones includes the first integrated circuit by Kilby in 1958,[31] Hoerni's planar process and Noyce's planar IC in 1959, and the MOSFET by Atalla and Kahng in 1959.[32]

The earliest experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at

large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s.[35]

Following the development of the

very large-scale integration (VLSI) of more than 10,000 transistors on a single chip.[38]

At first, MOS-based computers only made sense when high density was required, such as

pocket calculators. Computers built entirely from TTL, such as the 1970 Datapoint 2200, were much faster and more powerful than single-chip MOS microprocessors such as the 1972 Intel 8008 until the early 1980s.[25]

Advances in IC technology, primarily

millimeters to around 600 mm2, with up to 25 million transistors per mm2.[42]

The expected shrinking of feature sizes and the needed progress in related areas was forecast for many years by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). The final ITRS was issued in 2016, and it is being replaced by the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems.[43]

Initially, ICs were strictly electronic devices. The success of ICs has led to the integration of other technologies, in an attempt to obtain the same advantages of small size and low cost. These technologies include mechanical devices, optics, and sensors.

  • Charge-coupled devices, and the closely related active-pixel sensors, are chips that are sensitive to light. They have largely replaced photographic film in scientific, medical, and consumer applications. Billions of these devices are now produced each year for applications such as cellphones, tablets, and digital cameras. This sub-field of ICs won the Nobel Prize in 2009.[44]
  • Very small mechanical devices driven by electricity can be integrated onto chips, a technology known as
    MEMS gyroscopes used to deploy automobile airbags
    .
  • Since the early 2000s, the integration of optical functionality (optical computing) into silicon chips has been actively pursued in both academic research and in industry resulting in the successful commercialization of silicon based integrated optical transceivers combining optical devices (modulators, detectors, routing) with CMOS based electronics.[46] Photonic integrated circuits that use light such as Lightelligence's PACE (Photonic Arithmetic Computing Engine) also being developed, using the emerging field of physics known as photonics.[47]
  • Integrated circuits are also being developed for sensor applications in medical implants or other bioelectronic devices.[48] Special sealing techniques have to be applied in such biogenic environments to avoid corrosion or biodegradation of the exposed semiconductor materials.[49]

As of 2018, the vast majority of all transistors are MOSFETs fabricated in a single layer on one side of a chip of silicon in a flat two-dimensional planar process. Researchers have produced prototypes of several promising alternatives, such as:

As it becomes more difficult to manufacture ever smaller transistors, companies are using

flip-chip.[61][62]

Design

Main articles: Electronic design automation, Hardware description language, and Integrated circuit design
copper interconnect, down to the polysilicon (pink), wells (greyish), and substrate (green)

The cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, normally in the multiple tens of millions of dollars.[63][64] Therefore, it only makes economic sense to produce integrated circuit products with high production volume, so the non-recurring engineering

(NRE) costs are spread across typically millions of production units.

Modern semiconductor chips have billions of components, and are far too complex to be designed by hand. Software tools to help the designer are essential.

software tools for designing electronic systems, including integrated circuits. The tools work together in a design flow that engineers use to design, verify, and analyze entire semiconductor chips. Some of the latest EDA tools use artificial intelligence
(AI) to help engineers save time and improve chip performance.

Types

A-to-D converter IC in a DIP

Integrated circuits can be broadly classified into

digital[67] and mixed signal,[68]
consisting of analog and digital signaling on the same IC.

Digital integrated circuits can contain billions[42] of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and microcontrollers, use boolean algebra to process "one" and "zero" signals.

RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O
in the same chip

Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the

cores", used in personal computers, cell-phones, microwave ovens, etc. Several cores may be integrated together in a single IC or chip. Digital memory chips and application-specific integrated circuits
(ASICs) are examples of other families of integrated circuits.

In the 1980s,

programmed only once, devices that can be erased and then re-programmed using UV light, devices that can be (re)programmed using flash memory, and field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) which can be programmed at any time, including during operation. Current FPGAs can (as of 2016) implement the equivalent of millions of gates and operate at frequencies up to 1 GHz.[69]

Analog ICs, such as

continuous signals, and perform analog functions such as amplification, active filtering, demodulation, and mixing
.

ICs can combine analog and digital circuits on a chip to create functions such as

Atheros and other companies.[70]

Modern electronic component distributors often further sub-categorize integrated circuits:

Manufacturing

Fabrication

Main article: Semiconductor fabrication
interconnect, with the vertical pillars being contacts, typically plugs of tungsten. The reddish structures are polysilicon gates, and the solid at the bottom is the crystalline silicon
bulk.
BEOL
(back-end of line) and first parts of back-end process.

The

defects in semiconducting materials' crystal structure
.

GAAFET transistors instead of planar ones, starting at the 22 nm node (Intel) or 16/14 nm nodes.[71]

Mono-crystal silicon wafers are used in most applications (or for special applications, other semiconductors such as gallium arsenide are used). The wafer need not be entirely silicon. Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminium or copper) tracks deposited on them. Dopants are impurities intentionally introduced to a semiconductor to modulate its electronic properties. Doping is the process of adding dopants to a semiconductor material.

Since a CMOS device only draws current on the

logic states, CMOS devices consume much less current than bipolar junction transistor
devices.

A

which?]) Although the structures are intricate – with widths which have been shrinking for decades – the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although light waves in the visible spectrum cannot be used to "expose" a layer of material, as they would be too large for the features. Thus photons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are used to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, electron microscopes are essential tools for a process engineer who might be debugging
a fabrication process.

Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process known as

Industrial CT scanning
can also be used. Test cost can account for over 25% of the cost of fabrication on lower-cost products, but can be negligible on low-yielding, larger, or higher-cost devices.

As of 2022[update], a

Rock's law
. Such a facility features:

ICs can be manufactured either in-house by integrated device manufacturers (IDMs) or using the foundry model. IDMs are vertically integrated companies (like Intel and Samsung) that design, manufacture and sell their own ICs, and may offer design and/or manufacturing (foundry) services to other companies (the latter often to fabless companies). In the foundry model, fabless companies (like Nvidia) only design and sell ICs and outsource all manufacturing to pure play foundries such as TSMC. These foundries may offer IC design services.

Packaging

Main article: Integrated circuit packaging
A Soviet MSI nMOS chip made in 1977, part of a four-chip calculator set designed in 1970[75]

The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic

small-outline integrated circuit
(SOIC) package – a carrier which occupies an area about 30–50% less than an equivalent DIP and is typically 70% thinner. This package has "gull wing" leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches.

In the late 1990s,

thin small-outline package (TSOP) packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still used for high-end microprocessors
.

Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages, which allow for a much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package, the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery. BGA devices have the advantage of not needing a dedicated socket but are much harder to replace in case of device failure.

Intel transitioned away from PGA to land grid array (LGA) and BGA beginning in 2004, with the last PGA socket released in 2014 for mobile platforms. As of 2018, AMD uses PGA packages on mainstream desktop processors,[76] BGA packages on mobile processors,[77] and high-end desktop and server microprocessors use LGA packages.[78]

Electrical signals leaving the die must pass through the material electrically connecting the die to the package, through the conductive traces (paths) in the package, through the leads connecting the package to the conductive traces on the printed circuit board. The materials and structures used in the path these electrical signals must travel have very different electrical properties, compared to those that travel to different parts of the same die. As a result, they require special design techniques to ensure the signals are not corrupted, and much more electric power than signals confined to the die itself.

When multiple dies are put in one package, the result is a

system in package, abbreviated SiP. A multi-chip module
(MCM), is created by combining multiple dies on a small substrate often made of ceramic. The distinction between a large MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy.

Packaged integrated circuits are usually large enough to include identifying information. Four common sections are the manufacturer's name or logo, the part number, a part production batch number and serial number, and a four-digit date-code to identify when the chip was manufactured. Extremely small surface-mount technology parts often bear only a number used in a manufacturer's lookup table to find the integrated circuit's characteristics.

The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit week code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983, or approximately in October 1983.

Intellectual property

Main article: Integrated circuit layout design protection

The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit and preparing

photomasks for its production on the basis of the photographs obtained is a reason for the introduction of legislation for the protection of layout designs. The US Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984 established intellectual property protection for photomasks used to produce integrated circuits.[79]

A diplomatic conference held at Washington, D.C., in 1989 adopted a Treaty on Intellectual Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits,

TRIPS agreement.[81]

There are several United States patents connected to the integrated circuit, which include patents by J.S. Kilby US3,138,743, US3,261,081, US3,434,015 and by R.F. Stewart US3,138,747.

National laws protecting IC layout designs have been adopted in a number of countries, including Japan,

British Leyland Motor Corp. v. Armstrong Patents Co.

Criticisms of inadequacy of the UK copyright approach as perceived by the US chip industry are summarized in further chip rights developments.[84]

Australia passed the Circuit Layouts Act of 1989 as a sui generis form of chip protection.[85] Korea passed the Act Concerning the Layout-Design of Semiconductor Integrated Circuits in 1992.[86]

Generations

See also:
MOS integrated circuit, and Transistor count

In the early days of simple integrated circuits, the technology's large scale limited each chip to only a few

MOS transistors could be placed on one chip,[87] and good designs required thorough planning, giving rise to the field of electronic design automation
, or EDA. Some SSI and MSI chips, like
discrete transistors, are still mass-produced, both to maintain old equipment and build new devices that require only a few gates. The 7400 series of TTL chips, for example, has become a de facto standard
and remains in production.

Acronym Name Year Transistor count[88] Logic gates number[89]
SSI small-scale integration 1964 1 to 10 1 to 12
MSI medium-scale integration 1968 10 to 500 13 to 99
LSI large-scale integration 1971 500 to 20 000 100 to 9999
VLSI
very large-scale integration
 1980 20 000 to 1 000 000 10 000 to 99 999
ULSI ultra-large-scale integration 1984 1 000 000 and more 100 000 and more

Small-scale integration (SSI)

The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Early digital circuits containing tens of transistors provided a few logic gates, and early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or the Philips TAA320 had as few as two transistors. The number of transistors in an integrated circuit has increased dramatically since then. The term "large scale integration" (LSI) was first used by IBM scientist Rolf Landauer when describing the theoretical concept;[90] that term gave rise to the terms "small-scale integration" (SSI), "medium-scale integration" (MSI), "very-large-scale integration" (VLSI), and "ultra-large-scale integration" (ULSI). The early integrated circuits were SSI.

SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and aerospace projects helped inspire development of the technology. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems. Although the Apollo Guidance Computer led and motivated integrated-circuit technology,[91] it was the Minuteman missile that forced it into mass-production. The Minuteman missile program and various other United States Navy programs accounted for the total $4 million integrated circuit market in 1962, and by 1968, U.S. Government spending on space and defense still accounted for 37% of the $312 million total production.

The demand by the U.S. Government supported the nascent integrated circuit market until costs fell enough to allow IC firms to penetrate the

consumer products by the turn of the 1970s decade. A typical application was FM
inter-carrier sound processing in television receivers.

The first application

MOS integrated circuit chip in 1960,[94] the earliest experimental MOS chip to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at RCA in 1962.[33] The first practical application of MOS SSI chips was for NASA satellites.[93]

Medium-scale integration (MSI)

The next step in the development of integrated circuits introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "medium-scale integration" (MSI).

transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar chips.[35]

In 1964,

MOS integrated circuit chip, consisting of 120 p-channel MOS transistors.[34] It was a 20-bit shift register, developed by Robert Norman[33] and Frank Wanlass.[96][97] MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to chips with hundreds of MOSFETs on a chip by the late 1960s.[35]

Large-scale integration (LSI)

Further development, driven by the same MOSFET scaling technology and economic factors, led to "large-scale integration" (LSI) by the mid-1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.[98]

The masks used to process and manufacture SSI, MSI and early LSI and VLSI devices (such as the microprocessors of the early 1970s) were mostly created by hand, often using Rubylith-tape or similar.[99] For large or complex ICs (such as memories or processors), this was often done by specially hired professionals in charge of circuit layout, placed under the supervision of a team of engineers, who would also, along with the circuit designers, inspect and verify the correctness and completeness of each mask.

Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4,000 transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10,000 transistors, began to be produced around 1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors.

Very-large-scale integration (VLSI)

Main article:
Very-large-scale integration
Intel 80486DX2
microprocessor die

"Very-large-scale integration" (

VLSI) is a development started with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and, as of 2023, transistor counts
continue to grow beyond 5.3 trillion transistors per chip.

Multiple developments were required to achieve this increased density. Manufacturers moved to smaller MOSFET design rules and cleaner fabrication facilities. The path of process improvements was summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), which has since been succeeded by the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems (IRDS). Electronic design tools improved, making it practical to finish designs in a reasonable time. The more energy-efficient CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption. The complexity and density of modern VLSI devices made it no longer feasible to check the masks or do the original design by hand. Instead, engineers use EDA tools to perform most functional verification work.[100]

In 1986, one-megabit random-access memory (RAM) chips were introduced, containing more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million-transistor mark in 1989, and the billion-transistor mark in 2005.[101] The trend continues largely unabated, with chips introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors.[102]

ULSI, WSI, SoC and 3D-IC

Further information: Wafer-scale integration, System on a chip, and Three-dimensional integrated circuit

To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "ultra-large-scale integration" was proposed for chips of more than 1 million transistors.[103]

Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a means of building very large integrated circuits that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed.[104][105]

A

transmission power costs and waste heat from communication between modules on the same chip. This has led to an exploration of so-called Network-on-Chip (NoC) devices, which apply system-on-chip design methodologies to digital communication networks as opposed to traditional bus architectures
.

A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit. Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for faster operation.[107]

Silicon labeling and graffiti

To allow identification during production, most silicon chips will have a serial number in one corner. It is also common to add the manufacturer's logo. Ever since ICs were created, some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words. These are sometimes referred to as chip art, silicon art, silicon graffiti or silicon doodling.[citation needed]

ICs and IC families

See also

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Further reading

External links
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