Cornwallis in North America
Born into an aristocratic family with a history of public service, Cornwallis was politically opposed to the war, but agreed to serve when it became clear that Britain would require a significant military presence in the Thirteen Colonies. First arriving in May 1776, he participated in the Battle of Sullivan's Island, before joining the main army under General William Howe. He played a notable role in the partially successful New York and New Jersey campaign when George Washington successfully eluded him after the Battle of the Assunpink Creek and inflicted a decisive defeat on troops left at his rear in the Battle of Princeton.
Cornwallis was also involved in the Philadelphia campaign (1777–1778), leading a wing of Howe's army, before he became one of the leading figures of the British "southern strategy" to gain control of the southern colonies. In that role he successfully led troops that gained a measure of control and influence in South Carolina before heading into North Carolina. There, despite successes like his victory at the Battle of Camden, which burnished his reputation, wings of his army were decisively defeated at Kings Mountain and Cowpens. After a Pyrrhic victory at Greensboro, North Carolina, Cornwallis moved his battered army to Wilmington to rest and resupply.
From Wilmington, Cornwallis, in a move that became a subject of contemporary and historical debate, led his army into
Background
In 1768 he married Jemima Tullekin Jones, the daughter of a regimental colonel.[7] They had two children, a boy and a girl, before Jemima died in 1779, and were by all accounts a happy, devoted couple.[8]
American War of Independence
After the
These forces then shifted south and participated in the first siege of Charleston in June 1776. Cornwallis was landed with Clinton's troops on Long Island, where they were unable to cross the deep channel separating the island from Sullivan's Island, where the principal colonial defenses were located. The colonists brought artillery up to oppose any attempted crossing, and the landing was a failure, as was the naval cannonade of Fort Sullivan.[12]
New York campaign
After the failure in South Carolina, Clinton and Cornwallis transported their troops north to serve under
Trenton and Princeton
After the New York City campaign and the subsequent occupation of New Jersey by the British army, Cornwallis applied for leave to return home. He was preparing to sail from New York when orders arrived cancelling his leave. Washington's successful surprise attack on Trenton on the morning of December 26 demanded a response, and Howe ordered Cornwallis back to New Jersey to deal with Washington.[18]
Cornwallis rode into New Jersey on New Year's Day 1777 and gathered together the scattered British and German garrisons at Princeton, where an army of 8,000 came together.[19] Leaving 3,000 men in posts at Princeton and Maidenhead, Cornwallis advanced with the remaining 5,000 down the main road to Trenton early on January 2, where Washington had established a strong position on the south side of the Assunpink Creek.[18][20] He rejected advice from the Hessian Colonel Carl von Donop, who proposed a two-column approach that would turn Washington's right flank.[19]
After a running series of skirmishes designed to delay the British march, Cornwallis finally reached Trenton and came upon Washington's position around sunset. In the battle that followed, Cornwallis's forces made three attempts to either cross bridges or ford the creek; all were successfully repulsed.[21] Rather than attempt a nighttime assault across unknown terrain against Washington's position, Cornwallis ordered his troops to camp, noting that he could "bag the fox" in the morning.[21] During the night, however, Washington's forces slipped around his, and successfully attacked the British outpost at Princeton. Although the Continental Army's disengagement was due in large part to Washington's use of deception, including the maintenance of blazing campfires and the presence of a small detachment of troops to keep up camp sounds throughout the night, Cornwallis also neglected to send out sufficient patrols to monitor Washington's activities.[22] When the disappearance of Washington's army was discovered in the morning, Cornwallis immediately gave chase, but his troops only began to arrive two hours after the Princeton troops surrendered.[23] Washington, his forces tired out after the night march and battle, moved north toward Morristown, while Cornwallis returned to New Brunswick, where the large base had been left garrisoned by a single regiment, and included the British warchest.[24]
Cornwallis remained in New Jersey through the winter, where an
Philadelphia campaign
General Howe hoped that capturing Philadelphia, the rebel capital, would end the war at a stroke. Cornwallis was given command of the army's light infantry in the campaign, which got underway when the army disembarked at Head of Elk (now Elkton, Maryland) on 25 August 1777.[29] Advance units of Cornwallis's division were involved in the Battle of Cooch's Bridge on 3 September, as the army began its march northward.[30] At the Battle of Brandywine on 11 September, Howe and Cornwallis led the flanking movement that ultimately forced the Americans from their position.[31] Cornwallis also played an important role in the Battle of Germantown on 4 October, bringing up reinforcements late in the battle.[32] When Howe sought to gain control over the Delaware River approaches to Philadelphia, Cornwallis was sent into New Jersey in November to secure Fort Mercer after a failed Hessian assault. The Americans abandoned the fort as his column approached. General Howe then sent Cornwallis to probe Washington's position at White Marsh in December; these movements resulted in a series of inconclusive skirmishes.[33] When the army entered winter quarters in Philadelphia, Cornwallis took his long-delayed leave, sailing for England on 13 December.[34] In addition to spending several months with his devoted wife, he informed the government of affairs in the colonies and visited the families of his colleagues.[34] He sailed from England on 21 April 1778, and arrived in Philadelphia in early June, after a crossing that was much more pleasant than his first in 1776.[35]
During Cornwallis's absence, control of the British forces had passed to Henry Clinton on the resignation of General Howe; as a consequence, Cornwallis was now second in command in North America.
After returning to New York, Cornwallis applied to Clinton for leave to return to England, where his wife was ill. Clinton, believing Cornwallis was well positioned to influence the political leadership to gain additional troops for the war effort, granted the leave, and Cornwallis returned to England in December 1778.[39] Although he spent some time pleading Clinton's case, his wife's illness distracted him. Finding her in "a very weak state indeed", he stayed with her until she died on February 14, 1779.[40] Cornwallis was devastated by the loss, reporting that her death had "effectually destroyed all my hopes of happiness in this world."[41] He eventually decided to return to service in April 1779; in a letter to Clinton he offered to serve either in the southern colonies or the West Indies.[41]
South Carolina
Cornwallis returned to America in July 1779, where he was to play a central role as the lead commander of the British "Southern strategy". At the end of 1779, Clinton and Cornwallis transported a large force south and initiated the
The task Clinton left Cornwallis with was to, first and foremost, preserve the gains made by taking Charleston, and only then engage in offensive moves.[49] Clinton's orders gave Cornwallis wide latitude in how to achieve the goal of pacifying both South and North Carolina, after which Clinton expected Cornwallis to move into Virginia. Clinton wrote, "I should wish you to assist in operations which will certainly be carried on in the Chesapeake as soon as we are relieve from our apprehension of a superior fleet and the season will admit ..."[50] However, Clinton provided Cornwallis with a relatively modest force of British, German, and provincial (Loyalist) regiments—about 3,000 men—with which to accomplish all of this.[51] The forces he was given to accomplish this were limited by the necessity of keeping a large British force in New York under Clinton to shadow Washington. Cornwallis was expected to recruit more Loyalists, who were believed to be more numerous in the southern colonies.[52]
After the fall of Charleston, Cornwallis set about establishing a British presence throughout South Carolina. Although he successfully established outposts, keeping communication and supply lines open was an ongoing challenge. Supplies not available locally (like uniforms, camp gear, arms, and ammunition) were delivered all too infrequently, and supply ships were frequent targets of local privateers.
In early August, Cornwallis was alerted by Lord Rawdon, the commander of the British garrison at Camden that a new southern Continental Army, this time under the command of Horatio Gates, was approaching from the north.[58] Cornwallis moved forces to Camden from Charleston, and on August 16 inflicted an embarrassing defeat on Gates at the Battle of Camden. The relatively untried Continentals in Gates' army were routed, and suffered heavy casualties.[59] This served to keep South Carolina clear of Continental forces, and was a blow to rebel morale.[60] The victory added to his reputation, although the rout of the American rebels had as much to do with the failings of Gates (whose rapid departure from the battlefield was widely noted) as it did the skill of Cornwallis.[61][62] In London, Cornwallis was perceived as a hero, and was viewed by many there as the right man to lead the British forces to victory over the rebels.[63]
North Carolina
Cornwallis, buoyed by the victory at Camden, then prepared to advance north into North Carolina while militia activity, led by Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion, continued to harass the troops he left in South Carolina.[64] He detached Patrick Ferguson, his inspector of militia, to raise a company of militia in the hills of North and South Carolina and cover his left flank.[65] Ferguson was zealous in execution of this assignment, raising nearly 1,100 men.[66] However, he angered many colonists by issuing threats to "lay their country waste with fire and sword" if they continued their opposition, and a Patriot militia arose to oppose him.[67] While Ferguson recruited, Cornwallis moved his army to Charlotte, North Carolina, skirmishing with Patriot forces left there to harass his advance.[68] Ferguson's Loyalists and the Patriot militia, led by a coalition of commanders, clashed at Kings Mountain in early October, two weeks after Cornwallis arrived in Charlotte. The battle was a disaster: Ferguson was killed, and nearly his entire force was killed or captured.[69] Kings Mountain was only about 35 miles (56 km) from Charlotte, within Cornwallis's range to assist.[70] The defeat, combined with other failures to raise Loyalist militia and ongoing Patriot activity in South Carolina, prompted Cornwallis to retreat to Winnsboro, South Carolina, where he set up a winter camp.[71] Attempts to capture either Marion or Sumter were repeatedly frustrated.[72] To reinforce his army, he ordered Major General Alexander Leslie, stationed at Portsmouth, Virginia, to abandon that outpost and join him in South Carolina.[73]
The British camp at Winnsboro was not particularly comfortable, and the men were often sick, living in crude accommodations not unlike those that Washington's men had erected at Valley Forge in 1777. The army suffered from a general lack of supplies, but wagons and horses were in particularly short supply, and the earl discovered that his quartermasters were profiteering on the provisioning of those items.[74] The methods by which horses were acquired also served to alienate their Loyalist friends, since the quartermasters were sometimes indiscriminate, seizing horses from Patriots and Loyalists alike.[75] His supply lines were also continually harassed, particularly by Francis Marion. In November he ordered Tarleton out to capture Marion; the two commanders successfully maneuvered themselves out of entrapments laid by the other. Tarleton eventually returned to Cornwallis, reporting that Marion's force had been broken up; several days later, Marion resumed his guerrilla war.[76]
The arrival in North Carolina of a new Continental Army under Major General Nathanael Greene in December meant that the army would need to begin campaigning again.[77] Although General Clinton had dispatched Brigadier General Benedict Arnold to Virginia to threaten Greene's supply lines, Cornwallis needed to deal with the wily general.[78] Greene had detached Brigadier General Daniel Morgan with a light infantry corps to cause trouble in the highlands of South Carolina.[79] Cornwallis sent Tarleton with a sizable force to chase down Morgan.[80] In a tactically brilliant battle at Hannah's Cowpens on January 17, 1781, Morgan decisively defeated Tarleton, capturing most of his force.[81] News of the battle so upset the earl that he was reported to snap a sword. He wrote that "[T]he late affair has almost broke my heart", and vowed to recover the prisoners Morgan had taken.[82] Immediately giving chase, he was unable to gain on Morgan, who, although burdened with prisoners, was not burdened by a large baggage train. Cornwallis, in a move calculated to force his army to be able to move faster, ordered most of his baggage train destroyed on January 24.[83] Starting with the personal effects of himself and his officers, he ordered the burning of everything except a minimal set of supplies. Cornwallis's second in command, Charles O'Hara, commented that the move "must ever do the greatest honor to Lord Cornwallis' military reputation".[84]
This move inaugurated what has been called "race to the Dan".
After resting his troops, General Greene recrossed the Dan and returned to North Carolina. He and Cornwallis then engaged in a military dance of sorts, where Cornwallis tried to bring Greene to battle, while Greene, awaiting the arrival of more troops, sought to avoid it.
Cornwallis, his forces reduced by the seemingly endless campaign, then moved to Wilmington on the coast to resupply.[95] Greene, whose army was still intact after the loss at Guilford Courthouse, crossed into South Carolina, where over the course of several months regained control over most of the state.[96]
Cornwallis received dispatches in Wilmington informing him that another British army under Generals Phillips and Arnold had been sent to Virginia. He finally came to the conclusion that, in spite of orders that limited him to the Carolinas, he would best serve the British cause by going to Virginia to join his army with that of Phillips and Arnold. Writing after the campaign, he explained that he did not feel he could effectively support Lord Rawdon, who he had left in command in South Carolina, and that he would be unable to gain control of North Carolina until Virginia had been pacified.[97] Since he had not received instructions from Clinton in some time, he wrote the general a letter specifically requesting direction: "I am very anxious to receive your Excellency's commands, being as yet totally in the dark as to the intended operations of the summer. I cannot help expressing my wishes that the Chesapeake may become the seat of war [...] North Carolina [...] is the most difficult of provinces to attack."[98] He also wrote to Lord Germain arguing the case for operations in Virginia.[98]
Virginia campaign
Cornwallis marched from Wilmington on April 25, sending orders to Phillips to meet him at
Chasing Lafayette
Cornwallis, in the absence of instructions from Clinton, sought to execute the orders Clinton had given Phillips. These were to establish a naval station and to engage in raids against economic and military targets, and did not include any organized scheme of offense.[100] Sending General Arnold, who complained of gout, back to New York, he set out in pursuit of the marquis on May 27. He also sent a letter to Clinton, outlining his preference for Yorktown over Portsmouth as the site of a naval station.[103]
Lafayette, aware that he was not strong enough to oppose Cornwallis, fell back rapidly toward his supply base at Fredericksburg.[104] When Cornwallis reached Hanover Court House he stopped the chase, and instead detached Tarleton and John Graves Simcoe on two separate raiding expeditions. Tarleton he sent to raid Charlottesville, where the Virginia legislature was meeting, while he sent Simcoe to Point of Fork, where Baron von Steuben had a supply depot. Both expeditions were qualified successes; Tarleton very nearly captured Virginia governor Thomas Jefferson at his home of Monticello, while Simcoe managed to destroy a significant cache of supplies despite being outnumbered by von Steuben's force.[105] While these raids went on, Lafayette and Wayne joined forces, and Lafayette was further reinforced by the arrival of about 600 experienced militia a few days later.[106][107]
Cornwallis began to slowly move east toward Williamsburg, practically ignoring Lafayette.[107] He periodically detached Simcoe or Tarleton on foraging and raiding expeditions as he went, and his main army reached Williamsburg on June 25. Lafayette, buoyed by his reinforcements, followed the earl, and began sending out detachments of his own light troops to bring at least part of the British army to battle. Learning that Simcoe was foraging behind the main army, Lafayette sent out 600 men to track him down before he could rejoin Cornwallis. These two forces clashed on June 26 not far from Williamsburg, and Cornwallis escorted out reinforcements to cover Simcoe's retreat.[108]
Confusing orders
At Williamsburg, Cornwallis received several letters from Clinton. Clinton was upset that Cornwallis had moved into Virginia, and ordered him to establish a suitable fortified point.[109] He also ordered him to return any troops he could spare to New York. (This request, written in mid-June, reflected concern over the movements of the French army from Newport, Rhode Island to White Plains, New York, and intelligence that General Washington was considering an attack on New York City.)[110] Cornwallis reconnoitered Yorktown, and found it to be inadequate. He informed Clinton that he would move to Portsmouth, embark troops there for Clinton's use, and assess whether Portsmouth was a more suitable location for a naval station.[110]
Cornwallis accordingly began moving his army toward Portsmouth. This necessitated crossing the wide James River at Jamestown, a move the earl realized would give Lafayette an opportunity to attack. He decided to lay a trap for the marquis, who had come to the same conclusion when he noticed Cornwallis heading for the ferry. Lafayette's advance force, led by General Wayne, walked into the trap, and only just escaped it, suffering 150 casualties.[111]
On July 8 Cornwallis received orders from Clinton directing the troops he was planning to embark for a potential operation against Philadelphia.[112] Upon his arrival at Suffolk he received further dispatches from Clinton, including some that predated others he had already received. Cornwallis decided to proceed with the embarkation of troops for Philadelphia. By July 20, some of these troops had boarded their transports when fresh orders arrived countermanding those for the Philadelphia expedition.[113] He was now ordered to, if possible, recall any embarked troops, and instead do nothing beyond establishing a fortified naval station. He was "at full liberty to detain all the Troops now in Chesapeake" for the purpose.[114] It proved a fateful decision on Clinton's part, since the need to build and protect the new anchorage robbed Cornwallis of any freedom of manoeuvre. This was doubly unfortunate for as Cornwallis pointed out to his superior, the open bays and rivers of the Chesapeake, meant that any base there would "always be exposed to sudden French attack."[115] Nevertheless, Cornwallis, after analysing Portsmouth and several other options, dutifully chose Yorktown and Gloucester Point (across the York River from Yorktown) as the best of the choices for the station. On August 2, he disembarked his army at Yorktown, and began fortifying the area.[116]
Trapped
While Cornwallis fortified, forces from the
On September 6, General Clinton wrote a letter to Cornwallis, telling him to expect reinforcements. Received by Cornwallis on September 14, this letter may have been instrumental in the decision by Cornwallis to remain at Yorktown and not try to fight his way out,[119] despite the urging of Banastre Tarleton to break out against the comparatively weak Lafayette.[120] The British military leadership in New York held a council on September 17 in which they agreed that Cornwallis could not be reinforced until they had regained control of the Chesapeake. Historian Richard Ketchum describes the decision of the council as leaving Cornwallis "dangling in the wind."[121] One day earlier, Cornwallis wrote a desperate plea for help: "I am of the opinion that you can do me no effectual service but by coming directly to this place."[122] Before dispatching the letter on the 17th, Cornwallis added, "If you cannot relieve me very soon, you must prepare to hear the worst".[122]
"Sir,—I have the mortification to inform your excellency that I have been forced to give up the posts of York and Gloucester, and to surrender the troops under my command, by capitulation on the 19th instant, as prisoners of war to the combined forces of America and France."
Cornwallis to Clinton, October 20, 1781[123]
The siege formally got underway on September 28.[124] Despite a late attempt by Cornwallis to escape via Gloucester Point, the siege lines closed in on his positions and the allied cannons wrought havoc in the British camps, and on October 17 he opened negotiations to surrender.[125] On that very day, the British fleet again sailed from New York, carrying 6,000 troops. Still outnumbered by the French fleet, they eventually turned back.[126] A French naval officer, noting the British fleet's departure on October 29, wrote, "They were too late. The fowl had been eaten."[127] Apparently not wanting to face Washington, Cornwallis claimed to be ill on October 19, the day of the surrender, and sent Brigadier General O'Hara in his place to formally surrender his sword.[128] General O'Hara first attempted to surrender to French Comte de Rochambeau, who declined the sword and deferred to General George Washington. Washington declined and deferred to Major General Benjamin Lincoln, who was serving as Washington's second-in-command. General Lincoln accepted the sword.[129]
Aftermath
Cornwallis returned to Britain with General Arnold, and they were cheered when they landed in England on January 21, 1782.
Later career
In August 1785 Cornwallis attended
After holding administrative posts in London, he was despatched to the
The king then sent Cornwallis to finalize a peace agreement with Napoleon, and signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802 on behalf of the United Kingdom. In 1805 Cornwallis was again appointed to India. He died not long after his arrival, in October 1805. He is buried in Ghazipur, the place where he died.[138]
Notes
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 10–11
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 25–28
- ^ a b Ross, p. 9
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 41
- ^ Ross, p. 11
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 45–46
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 39
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 40
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 79–80
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 46
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 81–82
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 85
- ^ Fischer, p. 95
- ^ Fischer, p. 121
- ^ Fischer, pp. 121–125
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 92
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 93
- ^ a b c Wickwire (1970), p. 95
- ^ a b Fischer, p. 291
- ^ Fischer, p. 278
- ^ a b Wickwire (1970), p. 96
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 97
- ^ Fischer, p. 340
- ^ a b Fischer, p. 343
- ^ Martin, p. 20
- ^ Martin, p. 23
- ^ Martin, pp. 24–25
- ^ Martin, p. 26
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 100–101
- ^ Martin, p. 43
- ^ Buchanan, p. 238
- ^ Buchanan, p. 280
- ^ Ross, p. 30
- ^ a b Wickwire (1970), p. 105
- ^ a b Wickwire (1970), p. 107
- ^ Alden, pp. 385–386
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 110–112
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 112
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 113–114
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 114
- ^ a b Wickwire (1970), p. 115
- ^ Borick (2003) recounts the siege in detail.
- ^ a b c Borick (2003), p. 127
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 108
- ^ Borick (2003), pp. 128
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 130–131
- ^ Borick (2003), pp. 237–239
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 133
- ^ Alden, p. 417
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 134
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 135
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp 135–137
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 137–138
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 139
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 140–142
- ^ Pancake, pp. 81–83, 91–92
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 145–147
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 148
- ^ Alden, p. 420
- ^ Piecuch, p. 101
- ^ Piecuch, pp. 102–114
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 165
- ^ Alden, p. 422
- ^ Alden, p. 458
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 206
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 212
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 208
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 196–199
- ^ Pancake, pp. 118–120
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 211
- ^ Pancake, p. 121
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 223–225
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 227
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 231–233
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 235
- ^ Pancake, p. 125
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 234
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 250, 252
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 251
- ^ Pancake, p. 132
- ^ Pancake, pp. 133–138
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 269
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 275–276
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 276
- ^ Morrill, p. 135
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 283–284
- ^ Morrill, p. 144
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 285
- ^ Pancake, p. 176
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 289
- ^ Morrill, p. 150
- ^ Wickwire (1970), pp. 307–308
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 308
- ^ Pancake, pp. 185–186
- ^ Johnston, p. 25
- ^ Pancake, pp. 187–221
- ^ Johnston, pp. 26–28
- ^ a b Wickwire (1970), p. 320
- ^ Johnston, p. 28
- ^ a b Wickwire (1970), p. 326
- ^ Johnston, p. 37
- ^ Pancake, p. 223
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 328
- ^ Clary, p. 305
- ^ Clary, pp. 306–307
- ^ Clary, p. 308
- ^ a b Ward, p. 874
- ^ Ward, p. 875
- ^ Wickwire, p. 336
- ^ a b Grainger, p. 44
- ^ Clary, pp. 309–312
- ^ Wickwire, p. 347
- ^ Wickwire, p. 349
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 350
- .
- ^ Wickwire (1970), p. 353
- ^ Pancake, pp. 226–227
- ^ Pancake, pp. 227–229
- ^ Wickwire, p. 362
- ^ Ketchum, p. 205
- ^ Ketchum, p. 209
- ^ a b Ketchum, p. 208
- ^ Johnston, p. 181
- ^ Ketchum, p. 214
- ^ Ketchum, p. 239
- ^ Ketchum, p. 241
- ^ Larrabee, p. 235
- ^ Greene, pp. 294, 297
- ^ Babits and Howard, p. 195
- ^ Weintraub, p. 315
- ^ Ross, p. 141
- ^ Ross, p. 135
- ^ Greene, p. 322. See also Further reading
- ^ Ross, pp. 136–137
- ^ Duffy, p. 279–280
- ^ Wickwire (1980), pp. 7–222
- ^ Wickwire (1980), pp. 222–251
- ^ Wickwire (1980), pp. 251–267
References
- Alden, John R (1969). A History of the American Revolution. New York: Alfred Knopf. OCLC 174951843.
- Borick, Carl P (2003). A Gallant Defense: the Siege of Charleston, 1780. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. OCLC 50511391.
- Buchanan, John (2004). The Road to Valley Forge. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley. OCLC 231991487.
- Clary, David A (2007). Adopted Son: Washington, Lafayette, and the Friendship that Saved the Revolution. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-80435-5.
- Duffy, Christopher (1985). Frederick the Great: A Military Life. London. ISBN 978-0-415-00276-9.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Grainger, John (2005). The Battle of Yorktown, 1781: a Reassessment. Woodbridge, NJ: Boydell Press. OCLC 232006312.
- Greene, Jerome (2005). The Guns of Independence: The Siege of Yorktown, 1781. New York: Savas Beatie. OCLC 60642656.
- Johnston, Henry Phelps (1881). The Yorktown Campaign and the Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781. Harper & Brothers. p. 34.
Lafayette fredericksburg 1781.
- Ketchum, Richard M (2004). Victory at Yorktown: the Campaign That Won the Revolution. New York: Henry Holt. OCLC 54461977.
- Larrabee, Harold A (1964). Decision at the Chesapeake. New York: Clarkson N. Potter. OCLC 426234.
- Martin, David G (2003). The Philadelphia Campaign: June 1777 – July 1778. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo. OCLC 53278652.
- Morrill, Dan (1993). Southern Campaigns of the American Revolution. Baltimore: Nautical & Aviation Publishing. ISBN 1-877853-21-6.
- Pancake, John (1985). This Destructive War. University, AL: University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0191-7.
- Piecuch, Jim (2006). The Battle of Camden: a Documentary History. Charleston, SC: The History Press. OCLC 70219827.
- Cornwallis, Charles (1859). Ross, Charles (ed.). Correspondence of Charles, First Marquis Cornwallis, Volume. London: J. Murray. OCLC 1163639.
- Ward, Christopher (1952). War of the Revolution. New York: Macmillan. OCLC 214962727.
- Weintraub, Stanley (2005). Iron Tears, Rebellion in America 1775–1783. London. ISBN 978-0-7432-2687-5.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Wickwire, Franklin and Mary (1970). Cornwallis: The American Adventure. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 62690.
- Wickwire, Franklin and Mary (1980). Cornwallis: The Imperial Years. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-1387-7.
Further reading
- Clinton, Henry; Willcox, William (1954). The American Rebellion: Sir Henry Clinton's Narrative of his Campaigns, 1775–1782, with an Appendix of Original Documents. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. OCLC 1305132. General Clinton's account of the war.
- Clinton, Cornwallis; et al. (1888). The Campaign in Virginia, 1781: A Summary Review of the Controversy Between Sir Henry Clinton and Earl Cornwallis. London: Chas. Straker. OCLC 1447023. First of two volumes publishing correspondence relative to the 1781 campaign.
- Clinton, Cornwallis; et al. (1888). The Campaign in Virginia, 1781: An Exact Reprint of Six Rare Pamphlets on the Clinton–Cornwallis Controversy, Volume 2. London: Chas. Straker. OCLC 1447023. Second of two volumes publishing correspondence relative to the 1781 campaign; includes a response from Cornwallis to Clinton's published account, and anonymous supporting commentary.
- Saberton, Ian ed, The Cornwallis Papers: The Campaigns of 1780 and 1781 in the Southern Theatre of the American Revolutionary War (6 vols), The Naval & Military Press Ltd 2010