Crocus
Crocus | |
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Crocus sativus | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Monocots |
Order: | Asparagales |
Family: | Iridaceae |
Subfamily: | Crocoideae |
Tribe: | Ixieae
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Genus: | Crocus L. |
Type species | |
Crocus sativus | |
Sections | |
| |
Synonyms[1] | |
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Crocus (
Description
General
Crocus display the general characteristics of family Iridaceae, which include basal cauline (arising from the aerial stem) leaves that sheath the stem base, hermaphrodite flowers that are relatively large and showy, the perianth petaloid with two whorls of three tepals each and septal nectaries. The flowers have three stamens and a gynoecium of three united carpels and an inferior ovary, three locules and axile placentation with fruit that is a loculicidal capsule.[2]
Crocus is an
Leaves
Plants produce several basal linear bifacial green
Flowers
The number of
The showy, salver to cup-shaped, single or clustered
The 3
Fruit and seed
The fruit is a small membranous
Karyology
Crocus has extensive
Phytochemistry
The Iridaceae contain a wide range of
While the flowers may vary dramatically between species, there is little variation in the leaves,
Taxonomy
History
The crocus was well known to the ancients,
The genus Crocus was first formally described by
One of the first monographs of the genus appeared in 1809, by
Botanical illustration
The scientific study of the genus in the late eighteenth century was accompanied by detailed descriptions with Botanical illustrations, such as those of William Curtis (1787) and Sims (1803),[45] that appeared in Curtis' Botanical Magazine, with illustrations by Sydenham Edwards.[46] Other illustrations are found in monographs such as those of Haworth (1809)[37] and Sabine (1830), illustrated by Charles John Robertson.[38] The largest collection is found in the most comprehensive monograph, that of Maw (1886).[47] Other sources include the portfolios of plates, such as the survey of the plants of France by Masclef (1891). At that time only C. sativus and C. vernus were included in the Flora of France.[48]
Phylogeny
The genus Crocus belongs to the monocot family Iridaceae (iris family), specifically the large subfamily Crocoideae. Within that subfamily, crocus is placed on the tribe, Ixieae (synonym Croceae),[b] one of five. The Ixieae are then subdivided into subtribes, with the genera Crocus, Romulea and Syringodea forming subtribe Romuleinae. The Romuleinae have been characterised within the Ixieae by progressively reduced aerial stems.[51] solitary flowers on the stem branches and woody tunics on the corms. They also often have divided style branches. However, Crocus corm tunics are fibrous and membranous rather than woody as in Syringodea. Also, Crocus has a ridged and often keeled abaxial leaf surface, while that of Syringodea is rounded, and the midline adaxial translucency of Crocus is lacking in Syringodea. Romulea is principally distinguished from the other two genera by generally having aerial stems or at least an ovary at ground level, compared with the other acaulescent genera, other differences include unifacial rather than bifacial leaves and the pollen structure.[52][51]
Within the Romuleinae, Crocus is a sister group to Syringodea, the two genera forming a sister group to Romulea.[49][53][15]
Subdivision
The genus Crocus consists of about 200 accepted species, which continue to increase, and has undergone a large number of
The most widely accepted system, that proposed by Brian Mathew in 1982[56] was based on Maw's system, but with less emphasis on flowering times. This mainly depended on three character states:
- the presence or absence of a prophyll (a basal spathe);
- the aspect of the style;
- the corm tunic.
and included 81 species, however, one of these, Crocus medius was later recognized as a synonym of Crocus nudiflorus.[15][53]
The genus, as described by Mathew, consisted of two subgenera, Crocirus (monotypic for
Speciation
Crocus populations have extremely high infra-specific variability with a very diverse spectrum of morphological and phenotypical varieties, while many individual specimens from different species may closely resemble each other. Based on such morphological differences between isolated populations many new species have been named, but without a definition of new species based on molecular and/or karyological information, species can not be confirmed, creating difficulties in determining
Molecular phylogeny
The availability of
Of the 15 series in the Mathew scheme, only seven were
DNA analysis and morphological studies suggest further that series Reticulati, Biflori and Speciosi are "probably inseparable", C. adanensis and C. caspius should probably be removed from Biflori, C. adanensis falls in a clade with C. paschei as a sister group to the species of series Flavi and C. caspius appears to be sister to the species of series Orientales.[53][15]
The study showed "no support for a system of sections as currently defined", although, despite the many inconsistencies between Mathew's 1982 classification and the current hypothesis, "the main assignment of species to the sections and series of that system is actually supported". The authors state, "further studies are required before any firm decisions about a hierarchical system of classification can be considered" and conclude "future re-classification is likely to involve all infrageneric levels, subgenera, sections and series".[64] A further study, using the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA), together with a chloroplast marker, broadly confirmed these findings.[15]
Crocus forms a monophyletic clade, with a basal polytomy of four subclades. The first clade (A) corresponding to section Crocus, but including C. sieberi and several closely related species (originally included in section Nudiscapus series Reticulati). The remaining three clades (B-D) include all the remaining species of section Nudiscapus. Of these, B and C are small, corresponding to series Orientales and Carpetani respectively, with all remaining series in the large D clade. The exception is C. caspius, originally in series Biflori, which segregates in clade B. Thus, although division of the genus into two sections is well supported, no single morphological character defines these two groups. The C. sieberi group are assumed to have lost their prophyll secondarily. Of the series, eight could be shown to be monophyletic; Crocus, Kotschyani and Scardici (section Crocus) and Aleppici, Carpetani, Laevigati, Orientalis and Speciosi (section Nudiscapus). Flowering season did not correspond to molecular groupings and nor did any of the previously used morphological characteristics, indicating a high degree of homoplasy, in which traits are gained or lost independently in different lineages. The remainder of the series could not be supported as natural groupings. Mathew's concept of subspecies status within C. biflorus could not be supported, each being considered a separate species, resulting in the genus having at least 150 species.[15]
A more detailed molecular and morphological study of series Verni (section Crocus) allowed it to be better characterised and circumscribed, as well as the closely related series Longiflori. Series Verni sensu Mathew was found to consist of two groups, the first being C. vernus sensu Mathew and the other consisting of C. etruscus, ilvensis, kosaninii and longiflorus. The taxonomic status of C. vernus had been uncertain for some time, given the observation that the name was more properly applied to C. albiflorus,[34] requiring a new designation of C. neapolitanus for those previously known as C. vernus. Subsequently C. vernus was split into 5 separate species. The incorporation of C. longiflorus into series Verni resulted in making series Longiflori no longer a legitimate taxonomic unit.[60]
In section Nudiscapus, series Reticulati was polyphyletic with species intermingled with series Biflori and Speciosi, requiring a recircumscription, confining Reticulati to 8 species, to obtain monophyly.[65] Among the thereby displaced species, are a number of very closely related taxa, referred to as the Crocus sieberi aggregate, which has been proposed as a new series Sieberi.[29] Other new series, such as Isauri and Lyciotauri, continue to be created out of the Biflori series.[66][67]
Mathew's circumscription of Crocus introduced the rank of subspecies, of which the largest number (14) were those of Crocus biflorus
Sections and species
The classification of Brian Mathew (1982), as amended in 2009 divides the genus into two sections, further divided by series.[64] The number of series, continues to evolve.
- Section Crocus B.Mathew
Species with a basal
- 6 series
- Section Nudiscapus B.Mathew
Species without a basal prophyll.
- 9 series
Similarly named species
Some crocus species, known as "autumn crocus", flower in late summer and autumn, during (autumnal) rains, after summer's heat and drought. The name autumn crocus is also often used as a common name for Colchicum,[68] which is not a true crocus but in its own family (Colchicaceae) in the lily order Liliales. The plants are toxic, but have medicinal uses. Colchicum are also known as meadow saffron, though true saffron is not toxic.[69] Crocus species have three stamens while Colchicum species have six;[70] crocus have one style, while Colchicum have three.[71][10]
Some Pulsatilla species are also called "prairie crocus" (previously Anemone patens) or "wild crocus", but they belong to the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae).[72][73] Pulsatilla species, which are commonly called pasqueflowers, unlike crocuses have rhizomes, the foliage is covered with long soft hairs, and the flowers are produced on above-ground stems.[74][75]
Etymology
"Crocus", the name of the genus, is
Distribution and habitat
Crocuses are distributed from the
Habitats range from sea level to as high as subalpine altitudes, and in a wide range of habitats from woodlands to meadows and deserts, often on stony mountain slopes with good drainage.[83][20] The majority of species are native to areas with cold winters and hot summers with little rain, and active growth is typically from fall to mid-spring.[14] The natural habitats of crocus species are threatened by human activities, including urbanization, industrialization, and other land disturbances and recreational uses. They are negatively impacted by uncontrolled gathering and heavy grazing by livestock.[84]
-
Crocus alatavicus
-
Crocus aleppicus
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Crocus ancyrensis
-
Crocus banaticus
-
Crocus biflorus
-
Crocus cancellatus
-
Crocus carpetanus
-
Crocus cartwrightianus 'Albus'
-
Crocus caspius
-
Crocus chrysanthus
'Zwanenburg Bronze' -
Crocus corsicus
-
Crocus etruscus 'Zwanenburg'
-
Crocus goulimyi
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Crocus graveolens
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Crocus hyemalis
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Crocus imperati 'De Jager'
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Crocus kotschyanus
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Crocus laevigatus 'Fontenayi'
-
Crocus longiflorus
-
Crocus malyi
-
Crocus minimus
-
Crocus nevadensis
-
Crocus nudiflorus
-
Crocus olivieri
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Crocus pallasii
-
Crocus pulchellus
-
Crocus serotinus subsp. clusii
-
Crocus serotinus subsp. salzmannii
-
Crocus scharojanii
-
Crocus tournefortii
-
Crocus versicolor
Ecology
The
At night and in overcast weather, the perianth closes. The ovary produces nectar which attracts bees (particularly female bumblebees) and Lepidoptera.[10][87]
Pests and diseases
Cultivated plants may have their corms consumed by mice and other rodents,[88] including voles, squirrels,[89] and chipmunks. They are also attacked by mildew, gray mold, botrytis, and fusarium rot. Root rot may also occur, caused by Stromatinia gladioli and Pythium species - the nematode Pratylenchus penetrans may also cause root rot.[90] Viruses that are known to infect Crocus spp include: Potyviruses, especially bean yellow mosaic virus and also tobacco rattle virus, tobaccos necrosis virus, and cucumber mosaic virus.[91] The foliage may experience rot, rust, and scab diseases and be fed upon by aphids, mites, snails, and slugs.[92] The foliage is eaten by hares, rabbits, and deer; the flowers are sometimes removed by birds, including crows, jackdaws, and magpies.[93]
Cultivation
Saffron
The economic importance of the genus is largely dependent on the single species, Crocus sativus, now known only in cultivation.[94] C. sativus is grown for the production of saffron, an orange-red derivative of its dried stigma, and among the most expensive spices in the world.[53] The estimated worldwide production of C. sativus plants is 205 tons.[8] About 180,000 stigmas from 60,000 flowers are required to produce 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) saffron, which sells for about $10,000US (2018). Modern saffron production is widely cultivated in Kashmir, Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan and the Mediterranean from Spain to Asia Minor.[8] An important center is the eponymous town of Krokos, in the Kozani region of Greece. The saffron product, Krokos Kozanis is a PDO (Protected Designation of Origin).[95][96] production is largely indigenous and Iran accounts for 65% of global production, covering 72,162 ha.[8]
Saffron is thought to have been used in embalming in Ancient Egypt. it is mentioned in the Old testament, in the Song of Songs as a precious spice and has featured as a dye and fragrance throughout written history, with mention in The Iliad.[8]
Cultivation and harvesting of C. sativus for saffron was first documented in the Mediterranean, notably on the island of Crete. Frescos showing them are found there at the Bronze Age Minoan site of Knossos, as well as from the comparably aged Akrotiri site on the Aegean island of Santorini,[97][98] and formed an important part of the Minoan economy and culture and had both a sacred role and use as a psychoactive drug and food additive.[99][100][8] Women still gather crocuses in the Akrotiri region.[101]
Horticulture and floriculture
Crocuses were described in Turkish gardens in the early sixteenth century,[102] gathered from the far reaches of the Ottoman Empire,[103] where they were seen by visiting European botanists and explorers, among the first of whom was Pierre Belon who arrived in Constantinople in 1547. The first crocus seen in the Netherlands, where crocus species were not native, were from corms brought to Vienna in 1562 from Constantinople by the Holy Roman Emperor's ambassador to the Sublime Porte, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq. A few corms were forwarded to Carolus Clusius at the botanical garden in Leiden.[20] These were almost certainly cultivated varieties rather than wild species.[104] European visitors to Turkey continued to bring back specimens for gardens in their own country. Prominent among the latter were the gardens at Middelburg in the Netherlands. Jehan Somer, a Middelburg merchant, brought back crocuses among his other specimens in 1592, where they attracted the attention not only of Clusius but of the early Dutch flower painters, notably Ambrosius Bosschaert.[105][106] By 1620, new garden varieties had been developed, and featured in contemporary illustrations, such as that of Crispijn van de Passe in his Hortus floridus of 1614.[105] There are accounts of crocus gardens in the seventeenth century, such as the Saffron Garth of Walter Stonehouse at Darfield, Yorkshire.[107]
Crocuses are among the most important
The varieties cultivated for decoration in gardens and pots mainly represent six species: C. vernus, C. chrysanthus, C. flavus, C. sieberi, C. speciosus and C. tommasinianus. During the horticulture production year 2009/2010, more than 70 cultivars were grown in Holland, covering an area of 366 hectares; the most common ones were 'Flower Record' and 'King of the Stripes' which accounted for 42 hectares, other species grown included C. chrysanthus, C. tommasinianus, and C. flavus - all are spring blooming plants.[112] But the most commonly grown plants are the Dutch hybrids with large flowers in a rich palette of colors.[113]
Both sexual and asexual means are used to increase the number of plants; seeds and multiplication of corms are the most common means of production, but tissue culture can be used,[114] most commonly for saffron crocus. New corms are formed on top of the older corm which withers away, and cormels are produced from axillary buds.[112] The production of new plants begins with harvested corms in late June to early July, after being graded by corm size the corms are stored around 22 Celsius until early October when they are moved to 17 Celsius until planted later in October and November; flowering occurs in March and the flowers are not removed. Crocuses are also forced to produce flowering plants out of season and the most common species used are C. vernus and C. flavus, and most of the corms used for forcing come from the Netherlands.[115]
Spring flowering types are planted in fall, while fall-blooming types in late summer; typically, the corms are placed 3 to 4 inches deep in well-draining soil in areas with full sun exposure. They do not thrive in heavy clay soils or those that are damp, especially during their summer dormancy period.[116] Commercial crops are produced on raised beds and slopes, to ensure adequate drainage, while horticulturalists often plant on sand beds for the same purpose.[117] Spring flowering types also do well in areas with deciduous trees, where they flower and produce leaves before the trees completely leaf-out. Crocuses are grown in USDA winter zones 3–8.[118] Not all species are hardy in the upper zones; C. sativus is winter hardy in USDA zones 6 through 8, and C. pulchellus is hardy in zones 5 through 8.[92]
Some are suitable for naturalizing in grass, but mowing off the foliage before it turns yellow produces short lived plants. Some crocuses, especially C. tommasinianus and its selected forms and hybrids (such as 'Whitewell Purple' and 'Ruby Giant'), seed prolifically and are ideal for naturalizing. They can, however, become weeds in rock gardens, where they will often appear in the middle of choice, mat-forming alpine plants, and can be difficult to remove. Crocus flowers and leaves are protected from frost by a waxy cuticle; in areas where snow and frost occasionally occur in the early spring, it is not uncommon to see early flowering crocuses blooming through a light late snowfall.[88]
-
Field of flowering purple crocuses
-
Crocus 'E.A. Bowles',
a C. chrysanthus hybrid -
Crocuscultivars
-
Purple crocuses with closed flowers
-
Crocuses appearing through the snow
Autumn crocus
Autumn-flowering species of crocus that are cultivated include:[85]
|
|
|
C. laevigatus has a long flowering period which starts in late autumn or early winter and may continue into February.
Colchicum autumnale is commonly known as "autumn crocus", but is a member of the plant family Colchicaceae, and not a true crocus (of the family Iridaceae).
Uses
The corms of crocuses have been used as foodstuffs in Syria.[119] The carotenoids found in the styles of Crocus species, particularly C. sativus have been shown to inhibit cancer cell proliferation, and have led to interest in potential pharmaceutical applications.[15]
Culture
The crocus or krokos has been known since ancient times, and used in
Crocuses occur in many flower paintings, one of the earliest being that of Ambrosius Bosschaert's Composed Bouquet of Spring Flowers (1620). In this painting the cream-colored crocus feathered with bronze at the base of the bouquet reflected varieties on the market at that time. Bosschaert, working from a preparatory drawing to paint his composed piece spanning the whole of spring, exaggerated the crocus so that it passes for a tulip, but its narrow, grass-like leaves give it away.[citation needed]
The crocus is used in many contexts to symbolically denote spring and new beginnings. For instance, it was used as the emblem of the 2019 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Poland to symbolise the emergence of new talent.[127]
Notes
- ^ As a perfume (ἀρωμάτων) "καὶ πρὸς τούτοις τὸ κρόκινον· βέλτιστος δ’ ἐν Αἰγίνῃ καὶ Κιλικίᾳ (the saffron-perfume; the crocus which produces this is best in Aegina and Cilicia)". He also refers to the crocus as a spice (at 34), the word being interchangeable for either use[23]
- ^ Goldblatt originally described this tribe in 2006,[49] but in 2011 renamed it Ixieae, having discovered that this name had precedence[50]
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- Hill, Lewis; Hill, Nancy (2012) [2003]. "Crocus". The Flower Gardener's Bible: A Complete Guide to Colorful Blooms All Season Long: 400 Favorite Flowers, Time-Tested Techniques, Creative Garden Designs, and a Lifetime of Gardening Wisdom (10th Anniversary ed.). North Adams, MA: ISBN 978-1-60342-807-1.
- ISBN 978-0-600-35175-7.
- Phillips, Roger; ISBN 978-0-679-72756-9.
- Toogood, Alan, ed. (2019) [1999]. "Crocus". Propagating Plants: How to Create New Plants for Free (Revised ed.). ISBN 978-1-4654-9898-4.
- Viette, Andre; Viette, Mark; Heriteau, Jacqueline (2015) [2003]. "Crocus". Mid-Atlantic Getting Started Garden Guide: Grow the Best Flowers, Shrubs, Trees, Vines & Groundcovers (Revised ed.). ISBN 978-1-59186-435-6.
- ISBN 978-0-521-76147-5.
- Willes, Margaret (2011). The Making of the English Gardener: Plants, Books and Inspiration, 1560-1660. ISBN 978-0-300-16382-7.
Dictionaries and encyclopedias
- Harper, Douglas (2022). "Crocus". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 11 January 2022., (link note|note=see also Online Etymology Dictionary
- )
- Liddell; Scott (1996a). κρόκος , ὁ. Vol. 1. p. 998.
- Liddell; Scott (1996b). ἀρωμα^τ. Vol. 1. p. 254.
- Mabberley, D. J. (1997) [1987]. "Crocus". The Plant-Book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants (2nd ed.). ISBN 978-0-521-41421-0.
- Pankhurst, Roger; Hyam, Richard (1995). Plants and their names: a concise dictionary. Oxford: ISBN 978-0-19-866189-4.(Available here at Internet Archive)
- Skelly, Carole J. (1994). "Pulsatilla". Dictionary of Herbs, Spices, Seasonings, and Natural Flavorings. ISBN 978-1-136-51420-3.
- Tenenbaum, Frances, ed. (2003). "Crocus". Taylor's Encyclopedia of Garden Plants. ISBN 978-0-618-22644-3.
- Wyman, Donald (1986) [1971]. "Crocus". Wyman's Gardening Encyclopedia (2nd. ed.). ISBN 978-0-02-632070-2.
- Crocus. ISBN 978-0-19-920687-2. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 10 January 2022.)
{{cite encyclopedia}}
:|website=
ignored (help - Schmitz, Leonhard (1850). "Crocus". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology 2 vols. Vol. I: Abaeus-Dysponteus. London: Taylor and Walton. p. 896.
- Smith, William, ed. (1859). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (2nd. ed.). Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
Historical sources (chronological)
- Antiquity
- ISBN 978-0-674-99077-7.(also available hereon Penelope)
- 14th century
- BL (2022). "Detailed record for Egerton 747 (ca. 1300–1330)". Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
- 16th century
- Turner, William (1548). "Crocus". The Names of Herbes (1881 ed.). London: English dialect society. p. 31.
- Christophori Plantini. p. 53.
- Botanicus and here at Biodiversity Heritage Library)
- 17th century
- Besler, Basilius (1640) [1613]. Hortus Eystettensis, sive, Diligens et accurata omnium plantarum, florum, stirpium: ex variis orbis terrae partibus, singulari studio collectarum, quae in celeberrimis viridariis arcem episcopalem ibidem cingentibus, olim conspiciebantur delineatio et ad vivum repraesentatio et advivum repraesentatio opera (in Latin). Nürnberg.
- Parkinson, John (1656). "Crocus saffron". Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris, or, A Choise Garden of All Sorts of Rarest Flowers with their Nature, Place of Birth, Time of Flowering, Names, and Vertues to Each Plant, Useful in Physic or Admired for Beauty: To which is Annext a Kitchin-Garden Furnished with All Manner of Herbs, Roots, and Fruits, for Meat or Sauce Used with Us, with the Art of Planting an Orchard... All Unmentioned in Former Herbals. London: Printed by R.N. and are to be sold by Richard Thrale at his shop at the signe of the Cross-Keys at S. Pauls-gate, going into Cheap-side. pp. 160–170.
- 18th century
- Linnaeus, Carl (1753). "Crocus". Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas. Vol. 1. Stockholm: Impensis Laurentii Salvii. p. 36., see also Species Plantarum
- Maratti, Giovanni Francesco [in Spanish] (1772). Plantarum Romuleae, et Saturniae in agro Romano existentium: specificas notas describit inventor (in Latin). Rome: Typis Archangeli Casaletti.
- OCLC 5161409.
- 19th century
- Lindley, John (1853) [1846]. The Vegetable Kingdom: or, The structure, classification, and uses of plants, illustrated upon the natural system (3rd. ed.). London: Bradbury & Evans.
- Bentham, G.; Hooker, J.D. (1883). "Crocus". Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita. Vol. III Part II. London: L Reeve & Co. p. 693.
- Maw, George (1886). A monograph of the genus Crocus. With an appendix on the etymology of the words crocus and saffron by C.C. Lacaita. London: Dulau and Co.
- Nature (February 1887). "The Crocus". Nature (Review). 35 (902): 348–349. S2CID 4091523.
- Nature (February 1887). "The Crocus". Nature (Review). 35 (902): 348–349.
- Masclef, Amédée (1890–1893). Atlas des plantes de France 3 vols. Vol. 3. p. 328.
Chapters
- De Hertogh, August A; van Scheepen, Johan; Le Nard, Marcel; Okubo, Hiroshi; Kamenetsky, Rina (2012). Globalization of the flower bulb industry. CRC Press. pp. 1–16. ISBN 9781439849248., in Kamenetsky & Okubo (2012)
- ISBN 9781439849248., in Kamenetsky & Okubo (2012)
- Okubo, Hiroshi; Sochacki, Dariusz (2012). Botanical and horticultural aspects of major ornamental geophytes: II Crocus. CRC Press. pp. 79–82. ISBN 9781439849248., in Kamenetsky & Okubo (2012)
Articles
- Caiola, Maria Grilli; Canini, Antonella (2010). "Looking for Saffron's (Crocus sativus L.) Parents" (PDF). Functional Plant Science and Biotechnology. 4 (2): 1–14.
- Caiola, Maria Grilli; Faoro, Franco (2011). "Latent virus infections in Crocus sativus and Crocus cartwrightianus". JSTOR 26458691.
- Challenger, Charlie (March 1986). "The Pleasures of Crocus". The New Zealand Garden Journal (Journal of the Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture). 1 (1): 12–17.
- Davies, Kevin L. (2001). "The life and work of Sydenham Edwards FLS, Welshman, Botanical and Animal Draughtsman 1768-1819". Minerva - The Journal of Swansea History. 9: 30–58.
- Day, Jo (2011). "Crocuses in context: A Diachronic Survey of the Crocus Motif in the Aegean Bronze Age". S2CID 165105395.
- Dewan, Rachel (2015). "Bronze Age Flower Power: The Minoan Use and Social Significance of Saffron and Crocus Flowers" (PDF). Chronika. 5: 42–55.
- Harrison, Richard G.; Larson, Erica L. (1 December 2014). "Hybridization, Introgression, and the Nature of Species Boundaries". PMID 25149255.
- Harvey, John H. (1976). "Turkey as a Source of Garden Plants". Garden History. 4 (3): 21–42. JSTOR 1586521.
- Janick, Jules; Daunay, Marie Christine; Paris, Harry (November 2010). "Horticulture and Health in the Middle Ages: Images from the Tacuinum Sanitatis". S2CID 86510163.
- Kandeler, R.; Ullrich, W. R. (25 November 2008). "Symbolism of plants: examples of European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: JANUARY: Crocus". Journal of Experimental Botany. 60 (1): 6–8. PMID 19213723.
- JSTOR 45066517.
- Mohtashami, Leila; Amiri, Mohammad Sadegh; Ramezani, Mahin; Emami, Seyed Ahmad; Simal-Gandara, Jesus (November 2021). "The genus Crocus L.: A review of ethnobotanical uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology". Industrial Crops and Products. 171: 113923. .
- Negbi, Moshe (May 1989). "Theophrastus on geophytes". .
- Pastor-Férriz, Teresa; De-los-Mozos-Pascual, Marcelino; Renau-Morata, Begoña; Nebauer, Sergio G.; Sanchis, Enrique; Busconi, Matteo; Fernández, José-Antonio; Kamenetsky, Rina; Molina, Rosa V. (3 March 2021). "Ongoing Evolution in the Genus Crocus: Diversity of Flowering Strategies on the Way to Hysteranthy". Plants. 10 (3): 477. PMID 33802494.
- Rix, Alison (May 2008). "George Maw, Joseph Hooker and the genus Crocus". .
- JSTOR 4110516.
- Sharifi, G. (January 2010). "Etymology, history and application of saffron (Crocus sativus l.) in ancient Iran". .
- Trakoli, Anna (16 June 2021). "Minoan Art, The 'Saffron Gatherers', c1650 BC". .
- Rana, Yudhvir (20 June 2021). "Himachal Pradesh set for commercial cultivation of saffron". The Times of India. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
Phylogeny and taxonomy
- JSTOR 2992015.
- Aghighiravan, Fatemeh; Shokrpour, Majid; Nazeri, Vahideh; Naghavi, Mohammad Reza (July 2019). "Phylogenetic Assessment of Some Species of Crocus Genus Using DNA Barcoding". Journal of Genetic Resources. 5 (2). .
- Çiftçi, Almila; Harpke, Doerte; Mollman, Rachel; Yildirim, Hasan; Erol, Osman (6 April 2020). "Notes on Crocus L. Series Flavi Mathew (Iridaceae) and a new species with unique corm structure". S2CID 216439891.
- JSTOR 2399667.
- ISSN 2239-3129.
- .
- Goldblatt, P.; Manning, J. C. (13 December 2011). "Systematics of the southern African genus Ixia (Iridaceae). 3. Sections Hyalis and Morphixia". S2CID 84534897.
- Harpke, Dörte; Meng, Shuchun; Rutten, Twan; Kerndorff, Helmut; Blattner, Frank R. (March 2013). "Phylogeny of Crocus (Iridaceae) based on one chloroplast and two nuclear loci: Ancient hybridization and chromosome number evolution". PMID 23123733.
- Harpke, Dörte; Peruzzi, Lorenzo; Kerndorff, Helmut; Karamplianis, Theophanis; Constantinidis, Theophanis; Ranđelović, Vladimir; Ranđelović, Novica; Jušković, Marina; Pasche, Erich; Blattner, Frank R. (2014). "Phylogeny, geographic distribution, and new taxonomic circumscription of the Crocus reticulatus species group (Iridaceae)". Turkish Journal of Botany. 38: 1182–1198. .
- Harpke, Dörte; Carta, Angelino; Tomović, Gordana; Ranđelović, Vladimir; Ranđelović, Novica; Blattner, Frank R.; Peruzzi, Lorenzo (January 2015). "Phylogeny, karyotype evolution and taxonomy of Crocus series Verni (Iridaceae)". S2CID 18507508.
- Harpke, Dörte; Kerndorff, Helmut; Pasche, Erich; Peruzzi, Lorenzi (11 May 2016). "Neotypification of the name Crocus biflorus Mill. (Iridaceae) and its consequences in the taxonomy of the genus". .
- Kerndorff, Helmut; Pasche, Erich; Harpke, Dörte (2014). "Crocus isauricus Siehe ex BowleS (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) and its relatives" (PDF). Stapfia. 101: 3–18.
- Kerndorff, Helmut; Pasche, Erich; Harpke, Dörte (2015). "The Genus Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae): Lifecycle, Morphology, Phenotypic Characteristics, and Taxonomical Relevant Parameters" (PDF). Stapfia. 103: 27–65.
- Kerndorff, Helmut; Pasche, Erich; Harpke, Dörte (2015a). "Crocus lyciotauricus Kerndorff & Pasche (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) and its relatives" (PDF). Stapfia. 103: 67–80.
- Kerndorff, Helmut; Pasche, Erich; Harpke, Dörte (2016). "The Genus Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae): Taxonomical Problems and How to Determine a Species Nowadays?" (PDF). Stapfia. 105: 42–5o.
- Mathew, Brian; Petersen, Gitte; Seberg, Ole (2009). "A reassessment of Crocus based on molecular analysis". The Plantsman. New Series. 8 (1): 50–57.
- Nemati, Zahra; Blattner, Frank R.; Kerndorff, Helmut; Erol, Osman; Harpke, Dörte (October 2018). "Phylogeny of the saffron-crocus species group, Crocus series Crocus (Iridaceae)". S2CID 49409790.
- Peruzzi, Lorenzo; Carta, Angelino; Garbari, Fabio (22 October 2013). "Lectotypification of the name Crocus sativus var. vernus L. (Iridaceae) and its consequences within Crocus ser. Verni". doi:10.12705/625.7.
- Petersen, Gitte; Seberg, Ole; Thorsøe, Sarah; Jørgensen, Tina; JSTOR 25066017.
- Roma-Marzio, Francesco; Harpke, Doerte; Peruzzi, Lorenzo (9 May 2018). "Rediscovery of Crocus biflorus var. estriatus (Iridaceae) and its taxonomic characterisation". S2CID 91370762.
- Serviss, Brett E.; Peck, James H.; Benjamin, Kristen R. (2016). "Crocus flavus: a new genus and species of non-native Iridaceae for the Arkansas (U.S.A.) flora". JSTOR 44858594.
- Yilmaz, Aykut (1 June 2021). "The Evaluations and Comparisons of Nuclear and Chloroplast DNA Regions Based on Species Identification and Phylogenetic Relationships of Crocus L. Taxa". Journal of the Institute of Science and Technology. 11 (2): 1504–1518. S2CID 234849841.
Novel taxa
- Harpke, Dörte; Kerndorff, Helmut; Raca, Irena; Pasche, Erich (23 September 2017). "A New Serbian Endemic Species Of The Genus Crocus (Iridaceae)". Biologica Nyssana. 8 (1): 7–13. .
- Kerndorff, H; Pasche, E (31 July 1997). "Zwei bemerkenswerte Taxa des Crocus biflorus-Komplexes (Iridaceae) aus der Nordosttürkei" [Two remarkable taxa of the Crocus biflorus complex (Iridaceae) from northeastern Turkey] (PDF). Linzer Biologische Beitraege (in German) (1): 591–600.
- Kerndorff, H; Pasche, E (2011). "Two new taxa of Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) from Turkey" (PDF). Stapfia. 95: 2–5.
- Kerndorff, H; Pasche, E; Harpke, D; Blattner, FR (2012). "Seven New Species of Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) from Turkey" (PDF). Stapfia. 97: 3–16.
- Kerndorff, H; Pasche, E; Blattner, FR; Harpke, D (2013). "Fourteen New Species of Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) from West, South-West and South-Central Turkey" (PDF). Stapfia. 99: 145–158.
- Miljković, Milica; Ranđelović, Vladimir; Harpke, Dörte (9 June 2016). "A new species of Crocus (Iridaceae) from southern Albania (SW Balkan Peninsula)". .
- Papanicolaou, K.; Zacharof, E. (17 January 1980). "Crocus in greece new taxa and chromosome numbers". Botaniska Notiser. 133 (2): 155–164.
- Peruzzi, Lorenzo; Carta, Angelino (February 2011). "Crocus ilvensis sp. nov. (sect. Crocus, Iridaceae), endemic to Elba Island (Tuscan Archipelago, Italy)". .
- Raca, Irena; Harpke, Dörte; Shuka, Lulëzim; Ranđelović, Vladimir (19 October 2020). "A new species of Crocus ser. Verni (Iridaceae) with 2 n = 12 chromosomes from the Balkans". Plant Biosystems. 156: 36–42. S2CID 225006706.
- Ranđelović, Novica; Ranđelović, Vladimir; Hristovski, Nikola (April 2012). "Crocus jablanicensis (Iridaceae), a new species from the Republic of Macedonia, Balkan Peninsula". S2CID 84237883.
- Schneider, Ingo (2014). "Crocus brachyfilus (Iridaceae), a new species from southern Turkey". S2CID 86431711.
Historical accounts
- Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society of London. 4 (14): 111–119.
- Curtis, William (1787). "Crocus vernus". Curtis's Botanical Magazine. 2: T45.
- Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London. 1. M. Bulmer & Co.: 122–139.
- The Journal of the Horticultural Society of London. 2: 249–293.
- Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London. 7: III: 419–432, IV: 433–498.
- Sims, John (1803). "Crocus susianus. Cloth of Gold Crocus". Curtis's Botanical Magazine. 18: T652.
Websites
- European Commission (2022). "Krokos Kozanis PDO". Food, Farming, Fisheries: EU Quality Food and Drink. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
- "Elenco delle specie - Genere: Crocus - Famiglia: Iridaceae". Flora Italiana. 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
- Harris, Stephen (2022). "Crocus species (Iridaceae)". Oxford University Plants 400. Department of Plant Sciences, Oxford University. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
- FIFA (14 December 2018). "Emblem and match schedule for Poland 2019 unveiled". Tournaments. FIFA. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
- Porcher, Michel H. (25 June 2013). "Sorting Crocus names". Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database. Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
- Sözen, İbrahim (2022). "The Country Of Crocuses". Crocusmania (in Turkish). Retrieved 23 January 2022.
- Boland, Todd (20 September 2008). "Crocus to Brighten the Spring Garden". Dave's Garden. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
- . Retrieved 24 January 2022.
- . Retrieved 24 January 2022.
- "Distribution area of the genus Crocus subdivided into five different geographic regions (A-E)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution (Map). 66 (3): 617–627: Supplementary material. March 2013.
Organisations and collections
- IBS. "Crocus". International Bulb Society. Archived from the original on 3 September 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
- PBS (5 March 2021). "Crocus". Photographs and Information. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
- Bowles (2022). "Crocus Collection". E. A. Bowles of Myddelton House Society. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
- Lonsdale, John. "Crocus". The Lonsdale Collection. The Alpine Garden. Archived from the original on 25 February 2014. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
- Lonsdale, John (2022). "Crocuses". The Lonsdsale Garden. Edgewood Gardens. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
- Goode, Tony (2022). "Crocus Pages". Alpine Garden Society. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
Databases and flora
- "Crocus". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
- Flora of China
- Zhao, Yu-tang; Noltie, Henry J.; Mathew, Brian F. (2004). "Crocus Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 36. 1753". p. 313. Retrieved 6 January 2022., in Flora of China online vol. 24
- Wencai, Wang; Bartholomew, Bruce (2004). "Pulsatilla Miller, Gard. Dict. Abr., ed. 4. [1136]. 1754". p. 329. Retrieved 10 January 2022., in Flora of China online vol. 6
- Ali, S. I.; Mathew, Brian (2011). "Crocus L." Flora of Pakistan. Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
- GBIF. "Crocus L." Retrieved 9 January 2022.