Proto-Slavic noun pole meaning field, which in-itself originates from the Proto-Indo-European word *pleh₂- indicating flatland.[21] The etymology alludes to the topography of the region and the flat landscape of Greater Poland.[22][23] During the Middle Ages, the Latin form Polonia was widely used throughout Europe.[24]
The country's alternative archaic name is
Old Polish word lęda (plain).[28] Initially, both names Lechia and Polonia were used interchangeably when referring to Poland by chroniclers during the Middle Ages.[29]
anatomically modern humans coincided with the climatic discontinuity at the end of the Last Glacial Period (Northern Polish glaciation 10,000 BC), when Poland became habitable.[31]Neolithic excavations indicated broad-ranging development in that era; the earliest evidence of European cheesemaking (5500 BC) was discovered in Polish Kuyavia,[32] and the Bronocice pot is incised with the earliest known depiction of what may be a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC).[33]
Roman Legions sent to protect the amber trade.[38] The Polish tribes emerged following the second wave of the Migration Period around the 6th century AD;[24] they were Slavic and may have included assimilated remnants of peoples that earlier dwelled in the area.[39][40] Beginning in the early 10th century, the Polans would come to dominate other Lechitic tribes in the region, initially forming a tribal federation and later a centralised monarchical state.[41]
Poland began to form into a recognisable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under the
martyrdom of Saint Adalbert, who was killed by Prussian pagans in 997 and whose remains were reputedly bought back for their weight in gold by Mieszko's successor, Bolesław I the Brave.[44]
Teutonic Knights to aid in combating the Baltic Prussians; a decision that later led to centuries of warfare with the Knights.[55]
In the first half of the 13th century,
Henry I the Bearded and Henry II the Pious aimed to unite the fragmented dukedoms, but the Mongol invasion and the death of Henry II in battle hindered the unification.[56][57] As a result of the devastation which followed, depopulation and the demand for craft labour spurred a migration of German and Flemish settlers into Poland, which was encouraged by the Polish dukes.[58] In 1264, the Statute of Kalisz introduced unprecedented autonomy for the Polish Jews, who came to Poland fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe.[59]
In 1320,
Ruthenia in 1340 and imposed quarantine that prevented the spread of Black Death.[64][65] In 1364, Casimir inaugurated the University of Kraków, one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in Europe.[66] Upon his death in 1370, the Piast dynasty came to an end.[67] He was succeeded by his closest male relative, Louis of Anjou, who ruled Poland, Hungary, and Croatia in a personal union.[68] Louis' younger daughter Jadwiga became Poland's first female monarch in 1384.[68]
In 1386, Jadwiga of Poland entered a marriage of convenience with
Modern Era.[69] The partnership between Poles and Lithuanians brought the vast multi-ethnic Lithuanian territories into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for its inhabitants, who coexisted in one of the largest European political entities of the time.[70]
In the Baltic Sea region, the struggle of Poland and Lithuania with the
General Sejm in 1505, transferred most of the legislative power from the monarch to the parliament, an event which marked the beginning of the period known as Golden Liberty, when the state was ruled by the seemingly free and equal Polish nobles.[75]
The 16th century saw
Calvinist denomination and became the co-founders of global Unitarianism.[77]
Catherine II of Russia.[96] The new king maneuvered between his desire to implement necessary modernising reforms, and the necessity to remain at peace with surrounding states.[97] His ideals led to the formation of the 1768 Bar Confederation, a rebellion directed against the Poniatowski and all external influence, which ineptly aimed to preserve Poland's sovereignty and privileges held by the nobility.[98] The failed attempts at government restructuring as well as the domestic turmoil provoked its neighbours to invade.[99]
3 May Constitution, the first set of supreme national laws, and introduced a constitutional monarchy.[104] The Targowica Confederation, an organisation of nobles and deputies opposing the act, appealed to Catherine and caused the 1792 Polish–Russian War.[105] Fearing the reemergence of Polish hegemony, Russia and Prussia arranged and in 1793 executed, the Second Partition, which left the country deprived of territory and incapable of independent existence. On 24 October 1795, the Commonwealth was partitioned for the third time and ceased to exist as a territorial entity.[106][107] Stanisław Augustus, the last King of Poland, abdicated the throne on 25 November 1795.[108]
pogroms of the Polish-Jewish population. Towards the end of the 19th century, Congress Poland became heavily industrialised; its primary exports being coal, zinc, iron and textiles.[116][117]
Sanacja (Healing) movement to prevent radical political organisations on both the left and the right from destabilizing the country.[123] By the late 1930s, due to increased threats posed by political extremism inside the country, the Polish government became increasingly heavy-handed, banning a number of radical organisations, including communist and ultra-nationalist political parties, which threatened the stability of the country.[124]
Armia Krajowa (Home Army), fought against German occupation. It was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war, and encompassed a range of clandestine activities, which functioned as an underground state complete with degree-awarding universities and a court system.[134] The resistance was loyal to the exiled government and generally resented the idea of a communist Poland; for this reason, in the summer of 1944 it initiated Operation Tempest, of which the Warsaw Uprising that began on 1 August 1944 is the best-known operation.[133][135]
Nazi German forces under orders from
half of them Polish Jews.[147][148][149] About 90% of deaths were non-military in nature.[150]
In 1945, Poland's borders
Oder-Neisse line. As a result, Poland's territory was reduced by 20%, or 77,500 square kilometres (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced the migration of millions of other people, most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews.[152][153][154]
As elsewhere in Communist Europe, the Soviet influence over Poland was met with armed resistance from the outset which continued into the 1950s.[155]
Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war eastern regions of Poland
Lwów) and agreed to the permanent garrisoning of Red Army units on Poland's territory. Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War came about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture. In the European scene, it came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations.[157]
The new communist government took control with the adoption of the
was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956, after the death of Bolesław Bierut, the régime of Władysław Gomułka became temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. Collectivisation in the Polish People's Republic failed. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, but most of the time persecution of anti-communist opposition groups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Eastern Bloc.[158]
The mountainous belt in the extreme south of Poland is divided into two major
Mount Śnieżka at 1,603.3 metres (5,260 ft), shared with the Czech Republic.[185] The lowest point in Poland is situated at Raczki Elbląskie in the Vistula Delta, which is 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) below sea level.[177]
Poland's
Bug.[177] The country also possesses one of the highest densities of lakes in the world, numbering around ten thousand and mostly concentrated in the north-eastern region of Masuria, within the Masurian Lake District.[186] The largest lakes, covering more than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi), are Śniardwy and Mamry, and the deepest is Lake Hańcza at 108.5 metres (356 ft) in depth.[177]
Precipitation is more frequent during the summer months, with highest rainfall recorded from June to September.[188]
There is a considerable fluctuation in day-to-day weather and the arrival of a particular season can differ each year.[187]Climate change and other factors have further contributed to interannual thermal anomalies and increased temperatures; the average annual air temperature between 2011 and 2020 was 9.33 °C (48.8 °F), around 1.11 °C higher than in the 2001–2010 period.[189] Winters are also becoming increasingly drier, with less sleet and snowfall.[187]
prime minister who acts as the head of government.[199] The council's individual members are selected by the prime minister, approved by parliament and sworn in by the president.[199] The head of state is elected by popular vote for a five-year term.[200] The current president is Andrzej Duda and the prime minister is Donald Tusk
.
Poland's
first-past-the-post electoral system, with one senator being returned from each of the one hundred constituencies.[203] The Senate has the right to amend or reject a statute passed by the Sejm, but the Sejm may override the Senate's decision with a majority vote.[204]
With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates of political parties receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm.[203] Both the lower and upper houses of parliament in Poland are elected for a four-year term and each member of the Polish parliament is guaranteed parliamentary immunity.[205] Under current legislation, a person must be 21 years of age or over to assume the position of deputy, 30 or over to become senator and 35 to run in a presidential election.[205]
Members of the Sejm and Senate jointly form the
National Assembly of the Republic of Poland.[206] The National Assembly, headed by the Sejm Marshal, is formed on three occasions – when a new president takes the oath of office; when an indictment against the president is brought to the State Tribunal; and in case a president's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared.[206]
Poland is divided into 16 provinces or states known as voivodeships.[207] As of 2022, the voivodeships are subdivided into 380 counties (powiats), which are further fragmented into 2,477 municipalities (gminas).[207] Major cities normally have the status of both gmina and powiat.[207] The provinces are largely founded on the borders of historic regions, or named for individual cities.[208] Administrative authority at the voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed governor (voivode), an elected regional assembly (sejmik) and a voivodeship marshal, an executive elected by the assembly.[208]
medical experimentation, torture or corporal punishment, and acknowledges the inviolability of the home, the right to form trade unions, and the right to strike.[211]
The
National Council of the Judiciary and are appointed for life by the president.[213] With the approval of the Senate, the Sejm appoints an ombudsman for a five-year term to guard the observance of social justice.[203]
Poland has a low
congenital disorder and stillbirth are not covered by the law, prompting some women to seek abortion abroad.[216]
Historically, the most significant Polish legal act is the
ODIHR, one of the principal institutions of the OSCE.[223][224] Apart from the European Union, Poland has been a member of NATO, the United Nations, and the WTO
.
In recent years, Poland significantly strengthened its relations with the United States, thus becoming one of its closest allies and strategic partners in Europe.[225] Historically, Poland maintained strong cultural and political ties to Hungary; this special relationship was recognised by the parliaments of both countries in 2007 with the joint declaration of 23 March as "The Day of Polish-Hungarian Friendship".[226]
The Polish Armed Forces are composed of five branches – the
Ministry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland.[227] However, its commander-in-chief in peacetime is the president, who nominates officers, the Minister for National Defence and the chief of staff.[227] Polish military tradition is generally commemorated by the Armed Forces Day, celebrated annually on 15 August.[228] As of 2022, the Polish Armed Forces have a combined strength of 114,050 active soldiers, with a further 75,400 active in the gendarmerie and defence force.[229]
Poland ranks
SIPRI, the country exported €487 million worth of arms and armaments to foreign countries in 2020.[233]
Compulsory
military exercises.[229] Since 1953, the country has been a large contributor to various United Nations peacekeeping missions,[235] and currently maintains military presence in the Middle East, Africa, the Baltic states and southeastern Europe.[229]
Security, law enforcement and emergency services
Main articles:
tropical cyclones. However, floods have occurred in low-lying areas from time to time during periods of extreme rainfall (e.g. during the 2010 Central European floods
).
Law enforcement in Poland is performed by several agencies which are subordinate to the
firearms unless instructed by the superior commanding officer.[238] Security service personnel conduct regular patrols in both large urban areas or smaller suburban localities.[239]
The
Central Investigation Bureau of Police (CBŚP) and the Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) are responsible for countering organised crime and corruption in state and private institutions.[241][242]
As of 2023[update], Poland's economy and gross domestic product (GDP) is the sixth largest in the European Union by nominal standards and the fifth largest by purchasing power parity. It is also one of the fastest growing within the Union and reached a developed market status in 2018.[250] The unemployment rate published by Eurostat in 2023 amounted to 2.8%, which was the second-lowest in the EU.[248] As of 2023[update], around 62% of the employed population works in the service sector, 29% in manufacturing, and 8% in the agricultural sector.[251] Although Poland is a member of the European single market, the country has not adopted the Euro as legal tender and maintains its own currency – the Polish złoty (zł, PLN).
Poland is the regional economic leader in Central Europe, with nearly 40 per cent of the 500 biggest companies in the region (by revenues) as well as a
Central Statistical Office estimated that in 2014 there were 1,437 Polish corporations with interests in 3,194 foreign entities.[253]
Poland has the largest banking sector in Central Europe,[254] with 32.3 branches per 100,000 adults.[255] It was the only European economy to have avoided the recession of 2008.[256] The country is the 20th largest exporter of goods and services in the world.[257] Exports of goods and services are valued at approximately 56% of GDP, as of 2020.[258] In 2019, Poland passed a law that would exempt workers under the age of 26 from income tax.[259]
In 2020, the total value of the tourism industry in Poland was 104.3 billion PLN, then equivalent to 4.5% of the Polish GDP.[260] Tourism contributes considerably to the overall economy and makes up a relatively large proportion of the country's service market.[261] Nearly 200,000 people were employed in the accommodation and catering (hospitality) sector in 2020.[260] In 2021, Poland ranked 12th most visited country in the world by international arrivals.[262]
Tourist attractions in Poland vary, from the mountains in the south to the beaches in the north, with a trail of rich architectural and cultural heritage. Among the most recognisable landmarks are Old Towns in
Transport in Poland is provided by means of rail, road, marine shipping and air travel. The country is part of EU's Schengen Area and is an important transport hub due to its strategic geographical position in Central Europe.[267] Some of the longest European routes, including the E30 and E40, run through Poland. The country has a good network of highways consisting of express roads and motorways. As of August 2023, Poland has the world's 21st-largest road network, maintaining over 5,000 km (3,100 mi) of highways in use.[268]
In 2022, the nation had 19,393 kilometres (12,050 mi) of railway track, the third longest in the European Union after Germany and France.[269] The Polish State Railways (PKP) is the dominant railway operator, with certain major voivodeships or urban areas possessing their own commuter and regional rail.[270] Poland has a number of international airports, the largest of which is Warsaw Chopin Airport.[271] It is the primary global hub for LOT Polish Airlines, the country's flag carrier.[272]
The electricity generation sector in Poland is largely fossil-fuel–based. Coal production in Poland is a major source of employment and the largest source of the nation's greenhouse gas emissions.[274] Many power plants nationwide use Poland's position as a major European exporter of coal to their advantage by continuing to use coal as the primary raw material in the production of their energy. The three largest Polish coal mining firms (Węglokoks, Kompania Węglowa and JSW) extract around 100 million tonnes of coal annually.[275] After coal, Polish energy supply relies significantly on oil—the nation is the third-largest buyer of Russian oil exports to the EU.[276]
The new Energy Policy of Poland until 2040 (EPP2040) would reduce the share of coal and lignite in electricity generation by 25% from 2017 to 2030. The plan involves deploying new nuclear plants, increasing energy efficiency, and decarbonising the Polish transport system in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and prioritise long-term energy security.[274][277]
Around 60% of the country's population lives in urban areas or major cities and 40% in rural zones.
detached dwellings and 44.3% in apartments.[289] The most populous administrative province or state is the Masovian Voivodeship and the most populous city is the capital, Warsaw, at 1.8 million inhabitants with a further 2–3 million people living in its metropolitan area.[290][291][292] The metropolitan area of Katowice is the largest urban conurbation with a population between 2.7 million[293] and 5.3 million residents.[294] Population density is higher in the south of Poland and mostly concentrated between the cities of Wrocław and Kraków.[295]
In the
2011 Polish census, 37,310,341 people reported Polish identity, 846,719 Silesian, 232,547 Kashubian and 147,814 German. Other identities were reported by 163,363 people (0.41%) and 521,470 people (1.35%) did not specify any nationality.[296] Official population statistics do not include migrant workers who do not possess a permanent residency permit or Karta Polaka.[297] More than 1.7 million Ukrainian citizens worked legally in Poland in 2017.[298] The number of migrants is rising steadily; the country approved 504,172 work permits for foreigners in 2021 alone.[299] According to the Council of Europe, 12,731 Romani people live in Poland.[300]
Largest cities or towns in Poland
Statistics Poland (GUS) 2021[301] and GUS BDL 2021[302]
According to the 2021 census, 71.3% of all Polish citizens adhere to the
Roman Catholic Church, with 6.9% identifying as having no religion and 20.6% refusing to answer.[3]
Poland is one of the most religious countries in Europe, where Roman Catholicism remains a part of national identity and Polish-born Pope John Paul II is widely revered.[311][312] In 2015, 61.6% of respondents outlined that religion is of high or very high importance.[313] However, church attendance has greatly decreased in recent years; only 28% of Catholics attended mass weekly in 2021, down from around half in 2000.[314] According to The Wall Street Journal, "Of [the] more than 100 countries studied by the Pew Research Center in 2018, Poland was secularizing the fastest, as measured by the disparity between the religiosity of young people and their elders."[311]
Freedom of religion in Poland is guaranteed by the Constitution, and Poland's
Ashkenazi Jewish culture and traditional learning until the Holocaust.[317]
Ministry of Health; it provides administrative oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice, and is obliged to maintain a high standard of hygiene and patient care. Poland has a universal healthcare system based on an all-inclusive insurance system; state subsidised healthcare is available to all citizens covered by the general health insurance program of the National Health Fund (NFZ). Private medical complexes exist nationwide; over 50% of the population uses both public and private sectors.[319][320][321]
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, placed Poland's educational output as one of the highest in the OECD, ranking 5th by student attainment and 6th by student performance in 2022.[329] The study showed that students in Poland perform better academically than in most OECD countries.[330]
The framework for primary, secondary and higher tertiary education are established by the Ministry of Education and Science. One year of kindergarten is compulsory for six-year-olds.[331][332] Primary education traditionally begins at the age of seven, although children aged six can attend at the request of their parents or guardians.[332] Elementary school spans eight grades and secondary schooling is dependent on student preference – a four-year high school (liceum), a five-year technical school (technikum) or various vocational studies (szkoła branżowa) can be pursued by individual pupils.[332] A liceum or technikum is concluded with a maturity exit exam (matura), which must be passed in order to apply for a university or other institutions of higher learning.[333]
In Poland, there are over 500 university-level institutions,
The culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-year
National Heritage Board of Poland.[344] Over 100 of the country's most significant tangible wonders were enlisted onto the Historic Monuments Register,[345] with further 17 being recognised by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites.[346]
There are 13 government-approved annual public holidays – New Year on 1 January,
Independence Day on 11 November and Christmastide on 25 and 26 December.[347]
Particular traditions and superstitious customs observed in Poland are not found elsewhere in Europe. Though Christmas Eve (
carolers journey around smaller towns with a folk Turoń creature until the Lent period.[350]
A widely-popular
Holy Sunday are painted and placed in decorated baskets that are previously blessed by clergymen in churches on Easter Saturday. Easter Monday is celebrated with pagan dyngus festivities, where the youth is engaged in water fights.[352][351] Cemeteries and graves of the deceased are annually visited by family members on All Saints' Day; tombstones are cleaned as a sign of respect and candles are lit to honour the dead on an unprecedented scale.[353]
The origins of Polish music can be traced to the 13th century; manuscripts have been found in
polonaise tune for Polish kings by an unknown composer), may also date back to this period, however, the first known notable composer, Nicholas of Radom, lived in the 15th century. Diomedes Cato, a native-born Italian who lived in Kraków, became a renowned lutenist at the court of Sigismund III; he not only imported some of the musical styles from southern Europe but blended them with native folk music.[355]
In the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish baroque composers wrote liturgical music and secular compositions such as concertos and sonatas for voices or instruments. At the end of the 18th century, Polish classical music evolved into national forms like the polonaise. Wojciech Bogusławski is accredited with composing the first Polish national opera, titled Krakowiacy i Górale, which premiered in 1794.[356]
Poland today has an active music scene, with the jazz and metal genres being particularly popular among the contemporary populace. Polish jazz musicians such as
Traditional alcoholic beverages include honey mead, widespread since the 13th century, beer, wine and vodka.[400] The world's first written mention of vodka originates from Poland.[401] The most popular alcoholic drinks at present are beer and wine which took over from vodka more popular in the years 1980–1998.[402]Grodziskie, sometimes referred to as "Polish Champagne", is an example of a historical beer style from Poland.[403] Tea remains common in Polish society since the 19th century, whilst coffee is drunk widely since the 18th century.[404]
Several Polish designers and stylists left a legacy of beauty inventions and cosmetics; including
eyelash extensions.[406][407] As of 2020, Poland possesses the sixth-largest cosmetic market in Europe. Inglot Cosmetics is the country's largest beauty products manufacturer,[408] and the retail store Reserved is the country's most successful clothing store chain.[409]
Historically, fashion has been an important aspect of Poland's national consciousness or
Versailles, where French dresses inspired by Polish garments included robe à la polonaise and the witzchoura. The scope of influence also entailed furniture; rococo Polish beds with canopies became fashionable in French châteaus.[411] Sarmatism eventually faded in the wake of the 18th century.[410]
TVN 24 and Polsat News.[417] Public television extends its operations to genre-specific programmes such as TVP Sport, TVP Historia, TVP Kultura, TVP Rozrywka, TVP Seriale and TVP Polonia, the latter a state-run channel dedicated to the transmission of Polish-language telecasts for the Polish diaspora. In 2020, the most popular types of newspapers were tabloids and socio-political news dailies.[415]
Mariusz Pudzianowski is a highly successful strongman competitor and has won more World's Strongest Man titles than any other competitor in the world, winning the event in 2008 for the fifth time.[425]
Poland has made a distinctive mark
Ekstraliga division has one of the highest average attendances for any sport in Poland. The national speedway team of Poland is one of the major teams in international speedway. Individually, Poland has three Speedway Grand Prix World Champions, with the most successful being four-time World Champion Bartosz Zmarzlik who won back-to-back championships in 2019 and 2020 as well as 2022 and 2023. In 2021, Poland finished runners-up in the Speedway of Nations world championship final, held in Manchester, England in 2021.[426]
In the 21st century, the country has seen a growth of popularity of tennis and produced a number of successful tennis players including World No. 1
Agnieszka Radwanska, winner of 20 WTA career singles titles including 2015 WTA Finals; Top 10 ATP player Hubert Hurkacz; former World No. 1 doubles player Łukasz Kubot, winner of two Grand Slam doubles titles and Jan Zieliński, winner of two Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. Poland also won the 2015 Hopman Cup with Agnieszka Radwańska and Jerzy Janowicz representing the country.[427][428]
Poles made significant achievements in mountaineering, in particular, in the Himalayas and the winter ascending of the eight-thousanders (e.g. Jerzy Kukuczka, Krzysztof Wielicki, Wanda Rutkiewicz). Polish mountains are one of the tourist attractions of the country. Hiking, climbing, skiing and mountain biking and attract numerous tourists every year from all over the world.[266] Water sports are the most popular summer recreation activities, with ample locations for fishing, canoeing, kayaking, sailing and windsurfing especially in the northern regions of the country.[429]
^Multiple national identity was available in the census.
^"The dukes (dux) were originally the commanders of an armed retinue (drużyna) with which they broke the authority of the chieftains of the clans, thus transforming the original tribal organization into a territorial unit."[10]
^"Mieszko accepted Roman Catholicism via Bohemia in 966. A missionary bishopric directly dependent on the papacy was established in Poznań. This was the true beginning of Polish history, for Christianity was a carrier of Western civilization with which Poland was henceforth associated."[10]
^Veser, Ernst[in German] (23 September 1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept — A New Political System Model"(PDF). Department of Education, School of Education, University of Cologne, zh. pp. 39–60. Retrieved 21 August 2017. Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard, he recognizes Duverger's pléiade as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87).
. Retrieved 21 August 2017. Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger's sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal. In these cases, while the government is fully accountable to Parliament, it cannot legislate without taking the potentially different policy preferences of the president into account.
. Retrieved 26 October 2014. ... w wersji Anonima Minoryty mówi się znowu, iż w Polsce "paliły się kościoły i klasztory", co koresponduje w przekazaną przez Anonima Galla wiadomością o zniszczeniu kościołów katedralnych w Gnieźnie...
. Retrieved 8 April 2013. At the same time, when most of Europe was decimated by the Black Death, Poland developed quickly and reached the levels of the wealthiest countries of the West in its economy and culture.
^Gardner, Monica Mary (1942). "The Rising of Kościuszko (Chapter VII)". Kościuszko: A Biography. G. Allen & Unwin., ltd, 136 pages. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 29 October 2014 – via Project Gutenberg.
^Materski & Szarota (2009)Quote: Liczba Żydów i Polaków żydowskiego pochodzenia, obywateli II Rzeczypospolitej, zamordowanych przez Niemców sięga 2,7- 2,9 mln osób. Translation: The number of Jewish victims is estimated at 2,9 million. This was about 90% of the 3.3 million Jews living in prewar Poland. Source: IPN.
^Materski & Szarota (2009)Quote: Łączne straty śmiertelne ludności polskiej pod okupacją niemiecką oblicza się obecnie na ok. 2 770 000. Translation: Current estimate is roughly 2,770,000 victims of German occupation. This was 11.3% of the 24.4 million ethnic Poles in prewar Poland.
(PDF) on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2020. Oblicza się, że akcja "Inteligencja" pochłonęła ponad 100 tys. ofiar. Translation: It is estimated that Intelligenzaktion took the lives of 100,000 Poles.
^Grzegorz Motyka, Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji "Wisła". Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947. Kraków 2011, p. 447. See also: Book review by Tomasz Stańczyk: "Grzegorz Motyka oblicza, że w latach 1943–1947 z polskich rąk zginęło 11–15 tys. Ukraińców. Polskie straty to 76–106 tys. zamordowanych, w znakomitej większości podczas rzezi wołyńskiej i galicyjskiej."
^"What were the Volhynian Massacres?". 1943 Wołyń Massacres Truth and Remembrance. Institute of National Remembrance. 2013. Archived from the original on 13 August 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2016.
from the original on 24 July 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2023. Insert: Poland is home to 9,300 lakes. Finland is the only European nation with a higher density of lakes than Poland.
from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
^ abZbigniew Ustrunul; Agnieszka Wypych; Ewa Jakusik; Dawid Biernacik; Danuta Czekierda; Anna Chodubska (2020). Climate of Poland(PDF) (Report). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management – National Research Institute (IMGW). p. 7. Archived(PDF) from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
^Aniskiewicz, Alena (2016). "That's Polish: Exploring the History of Poland's National Emblems". culture.pl. Adam Mickiewicz Institute. Archived from the original on 3 April 2022. Retrieved 3 April 2022. "A white eagle [...], the profile of a shaggy bison in a field of grass. These are emblems of Poland". "Nation's (somewhat disputed) national flower – the corn poppy".
from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
^Nations, United (2020). "Human Development Indicators – Poland". Human Development Reports. United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 28 January 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
^Government of Poland (2019). Eksport uzbrojenia i sprzętu wojskowego Polski(PDF) (Report). Warszawa (Warsaw): Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych MSZ (Ministry of Foreign Affairs). p. 4. Archived(PDF) from the original on 28 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
^ abNarodowego, Biuro Bezpieczeństwa. "Potencjał ochronny". Biuro Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego. Archived from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
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