Education in the Soviet Union

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Education in the Soviet Union was guaranteed as a

social sciences, along with basic education.[1]

History

Main article: Ministry of Education (Soviet Union)

In

literate people made up 28.4 percent of the population
. A mere 13% of women were literate.

In the first year after the 1917

RSFSR.[2]
From October 1, 1918, all types of schools came under Commissariat for Education and were designated by the name "Uniform Labour School". They were divided into two levels: the first for children from 8 to 13, and the second for children from 14 to 17. During the
Soviet government
. After that, Soviet school policy underwent numerous radical changes.

The period of the

First World War (1914–1918), of the Russian Civil War (1917–1923) and of war communism (1918–1921) led to sharp drops in the number of schools and of enrolled students. Whereas in 1914, 91% of the children were receiving instruction in schools, in 1918 figure dropped to 62%, in 1919 to 49% and in 1920 to 24.9%.[3]
As a result, illiteracy grew rapidly.

1938 USSR postage stamp depicting children in a biology lesson

In accordance with the

census data, the literacy rate was 86% for men and 65% for women, with a total literacy rate of 75%.[5]

An important aspect of the early campaign for literacy and education was the policy of "indigenisation" (

USSR, accompanied by widespread and growing bilingualism where Russian was said to be the "language of internationality communication"[7]
[8] (Russian: язык межнационального общения).

In 1923 a new school statute and curricula were adopted. Schools were divided into three separate types, designated by the number of years of instruction: "four-year", "seven-year" and "nine-year" schools. Seven- and nine-year (secondary) schools were scarce, compared to the "four-year" (primary) schools, making it difficult for the pupils to complete their secondary education. Those who finished seven-year schools had the right to enter Technicums. Only nine-year schooling led directly to university-level education.[citation needed]

The curriculum was changed[citation needed] radically. Independent subjects, such as reading, writing, arithmetic, the mother tongue, foreign languages, history, geography, literature or science were abolished. Instead school programmes were subdivided into "complex themes", such as "the life and labour of the family in village and town" for the first year or "scientific organisation of labour" for the 7th year of education. This system proved a complete failure, however, and in 1928 a new programme completely abandoned the complex themes and resumed instruction in individual subjects.

All students were required to take the same standardised classes. This continued until the 1970s, when older students began being given time to take elective courses of their own choice in addition to the standard courses.[9]

From 1918 all Soviet schools were

co-educational. In 1943, urban schools were separated[citation needed
] into boys' and girls' schools. In 1954 the mixed-sex education system was restored.

Soviet education in 1930s–1950s was inflexible and suppressive.[

Soviet historiography).[12] The educational system's ideological pressure continued, but in the 1980s, the government's more open policies influenced changes that made the system more flexible[13]
. Shortly before the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union, schools no longer had to teach subjects from the Marxist-Leninist perspective at all.[14]

Another aspect of the inflexibility was the high rate at which pupils were held back and required to repeat a year of schooling. In the early 1950s, typically 8–10% of pupils in elementary grades were held back a year. This was partly attributable to the pedagogical style of teachers, and partly to the fact that many of these children had disabilities that impeded their performance. In the latter 1950s, however, the Ministry of Education began to promote the formation of a wide variety of special schools (or "auxiliary schools") for children with physical or mental handicaps.[15] Once those children were taken out of the mainstream (general) schools, and once teachers began to be held accountable for the repeat-rates of their pupils, the rates fell sharply. By the mid-1960s the repeat-rates in the general primary schools declined to about 2%, and by the late 1970s to less than 1%.[16]

The number of schoolchildren enrolled in special schools grew fivefold between 1960 and 1980. However, the availability of such special schools varied greatly from one

Central Asian ones. This difference probably had more to do with the availability of resources than with the relative need for the services by children in the two regions.[17][need quotation to verify
]

In the 1970s and 1980s, approximately 99.7% of Soviet people were

literate.[18]

Classification and terms

The Soviet educational system was organized into three levels. The names of these levels were and are still used to rate the education standards of persons or particular schools, despite differences in the exact terminology used by each profession or school. Military,

Party schools were also graded according to these levels.[citation needed
] This distinguishes the Soviet system from the rest of the world, where educational levels of schools may differ, despite their similar names.

Elementary schools were called the "beginning" level (Russian: начальное, nachalnoye), 4 and later 3 classes. Secondary schools were 7 and later 8 classes (required completing elementary school) and called "incomplete secondary education" (Russian: неполное среднее образование, nepolnoye sredneye obrazavaniye). This level was compulsory for all children (since 1958–1963) and optional for under-educated adults (who could study in so-called "evening schools"). Since 1981, the "complete secondary education" level (10 or, in some republics, 11 years) was compulsory.[citation needed]

10 classes (11 classes in the Baltic republics) of an ordinary school was called "secondary education" (Russian: среднее образование—literally, "middle education").[citation needed]

PTUs, tekhnikums, and some military facilities formed a system of so-called “secondary specialized education” (Russian: среднее специальное, sredneye spetsialnoye). PTU's were vocational schools and trained students in a wide variety of skills ranging from mechanic to hairdresser. Completion of a PTU after primary school did not provide a full secondary diploma or a route to such a diploma. However, entry to a tekhnikum or other specialized secondary school could be started after either 8 or 10 classes of combined education in elementary and secondary school. Graduation from this level was required for the positions of qualified workers, technicians and lower bureaucrats (see also vocational education, professions, training).

“Higher” (

universities, “institutes” and military academies. "Institute" in the sense of a school refers to a specialized "microuniversity" (mostly technical), usually subordinate to the ministry associated with their field of study. The largest network "institutes" were medical, pedagogic (for the training of schoolteachers), construction and various transport (automotive and road, railroad, civil aviation) institutes. Some of those institutes were present in every oblast capital while others were unique and situated in big cities (like the Literature Institute and the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology ). Colloquially these universities and institutes were all referred to by the acronym "VUZ" (ВУЗ – высшее учебное заведение, "higher educational institution").[citation needed
]

Students who wanted admission to a VUZ had to have graduated from either a general secondary school (10 or 11 years) or a specialized secondary school or a tekhnikum. Those who completed only vocational school (PTU) or "incomplete secondary school" were not certified as having completed secondary education (they lacked an аттестат зрелости – maturity certificate – or equivalent diploma from a specialized secondary school) and were thus not eligible to attend a VUZ.[citation needed]

Numerous military and militsiya (police) schools (

Soviet military academies
)

KGB's higher education institutions were called either "schools" (like "Higher School of KGB") or "institutes" (like "

intelligence officers).[citation needed
]

CPSU's higher education institutions were called "Higher Party Schools" (Russian: Высшая партийная школа, vysshaya partiynaya shkola).[citation needed]

The spirit and

post-Soviet countries despite formal changes and social transitions.[citation needed
]

See also

Citations

  1. ^ M. L. Spearman, "Scientific and technical training in the Soviet Union," NASA, Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA, AIAA-1983-2520, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Aircraft Design,Systems and Technology Meeting, Fort Worth, TX, Oct 17-19, 1983.
  2. ^ Russian S.F.S.R. (1918). Единая трудовая школа: положение о единой трудовой школе Российской Социалистической Федеративной Советской Республики (in Russian). Изд-во Всероссийского центр. исполнительного комитета. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
  3. ^ Russia U.S.S.R.: A Complete Handbook New York: William Farquhar Payson. 1933. p. 665.
  4. ^ Heyat, F. 2002. Azeri women in transition. London: Routledge. 89-94.
  5. OCLC 28293091
    .
  6. ^ For literature concerning policy change over time, see the article on Russification. For an analysis of changes over time in the extent of native-language schooling, see Barbara A. Anderson and Brian D. Silver, "Equality, Efficiency, and Politics in Soviet Bilingual Education Policy, 1934-1980," American Political Science Review 78 (December 1984): 1019-1039.
  7. ^ Walker, Edward W. (4 May 2006). "The Long Road from Empire: Legacies of Nation Building in the Soviet Successor States". In
    ISBN 9780742578159
    . Retrieved 6 May 2023. Russian was the language of public business, the official language of 'internationality communication.'
  8. ^ See the essay on Russification.
  9. ^ Grant, Nigel (1979). Soviet Education. Harmondsworth: Penguin. pp. 39–40.
  10. ^ Grant, Nigel (1979). Soviet Education. Harmondsworth: Penguin. p. 27.
  11. ^ See the articles on Trofim Lysenko and Lysenkoism.
  12. ISBN 978-0-415-28592-6
    . See Chapter 8, Aspects and variations of Soviet history.
  13. ^ Semetsky I., Gavrov S. Values, edusemiotics, and intercultural dialogue: From Russia with questions// Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies / Revue de l'Association Internationale de Sémiotique. De Gruyter Mouton, Berlin, 2016. № 212, PP. 111-127.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/sem-2016-0127
  14. JSTOR 20404646
    .
  15. ^ The generic category (школы для детей с дефектами [недостатками] физического и умственного развития — schools for children with defects (deficiencies) of physical and mental development – included schools for children who were deaf, hearing-impaired, speech-impaired, partially sighted, orthopedically handicapped, or mentally retarded but educable. Compendia of educational statistics would report the number of such pupils in an "auxiliary schools" category separate from children in the general schools.
  16. Soviet Studies
     39 (July 1987): 468-488.
  17. ^ Anderson, Silver, Velkoff (1987).
  18. ^ Semetsky I., Gavrov S. "Values, edusemiotics, and intercultural dialogue: From Russia with questions"// Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies / Revue de l'Association Internationale de Sémiotique. De Gruyter Mouton, Berlin, 2016. № 212, PP. 111-127.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/sem-2016-0127

Bibliography

See also:
Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union § Social History
  • Bronfenbrenner, Urie. Two worlds of childhood: U.S. and U.S.S.R. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1970.
  • Sheila Fitzpatrick. 1978. Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931. Indiana University Press.
  • Sheila Fitzpatrick. Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union, 1921-1934. Cambridge University Press. 1979
  • E. Glyn Lewis. Multilingualism in the Soviet Union: Aspects of Language Policy and Its Implementation. The Hague: Mouton, 1971.
  • Spearman, M. L. Scientific and technical training in the Soviet Union, (
    Hampton, VA
    ), 1983.
  • Michael David-Fox and György Péteri. Academia in Upheaval: Origins, Transfers, and Transformations of the Communist Academic Regime in Russia and East Central Europe. 2000
  • Ebon, Martin. The Soviet Propaganda Machine. New York: McGraw, 1987. Print.
  • Grant, Nigel. Soviet Education. 4th ed. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979. Print
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