Health and environmental effects of battery electric cars
Comparison with fossil-fueled cars
Although all
- Elimination of harmful tailpipe pollutants such as various oxides of nitrogen, which kill thousands of people every year[7]
- Less CO2 emissions than fossil-fuelled cars, thus limiting climate change[8]
- As almost all electric cars have regenerative braking brake pads can be used less frequently than in non-electric cars, and may thus sometimes produce less particulate pollution than brakes in non-electric cars.[9][10] Also, some electric cars may have a combination of drum brakes and disc brakes, and drum brakes are known to cause less particulate emissions than disc brakes.[11] Under the provisionally agreed Euro 7 standard electric cars have a lower limit of brake particulates.[12][13]
Electric cars may have some disadvantages, such as:
- Possible increased tire pollution compared to fossil-fueled cars. This is sometimes caused by the fact that most electric cars have a heavy battery, which means the car's tires are subjected to more wear.[14][15] Devices to capture tyre particulates are being developed,[16][17] and under Euro 7 all new cars will have to meet the same tyre particulate limit.[18]
- If electric cars are bigger than fossil fuel cars there may be more road dust pollution. However as of 2024 more research on road dust air pollution is needed.[2]
Materials extraction impact
Raw materials
Electric cars use far less raw materials than conventional petrol/gasoline cars, according to Transport & Environment. This difference is chiefly due to fuel consumption: the petrol or diesel that is burned during the average lifetime of a car would fill a stack of oil barrels 90 metres high, and weights between 300-400 times more than the total quantity of battery metals lost with an electric car (at around 30 kilograms, these metals would fit into the size of a football).
Plug-in hybrids and electric cars run off
Most electric vehicles use permanent magnet motors as they are more efficient than induction motors. These permanent magnets use neodymium and praseodymium which can be dirty and difficult to produce.
The demand for lithium used by the batteries and rare-earth elements (such as neodymium, boron, and cobalt[20]) used by the electric motors, is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug-in electric vehicles.
In 2022 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said (with medium confidence) "Emerging national strategies on critical minerals and the requirements from major vehicle manufacturers are leading to new, more geographically diverse mines. The standardisation of battery modules and packaging within and across vehicle platforms, as well as increased focus on design for recyclability are important. Given the high degree of potential recyclability of lithium-ion batteries, a nearly closed-loop system in the future could mitigate concerns about critical mineral issues."[21]: 142
Lithium
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Piles_of_Salt_Salar_de_Uyuni_Bolivia_Luca_Galuzzi_2006_a.jpg/220px-Piles_of_Salt_Salar_de_Uyuni_Bolivia_Luca_Galuzzi_2006_a.jpg)
The main deposits of lithium are found in
Nearly half the world's
According to a 2020 study balancing lithium supply and demand for the rest of the century needs good recycling systems, vehicle-to-grid integration, and lower lithium intensity of transportation.[30]
Rare-earth elements
China has 48% of the world's reserves of rare-earth elements,
Manufacturing impact
Electric cars also have impacts arising from the manufacturing of the vehicle.
The manufacturing of electric vehicle motors also results in environmental impacts. Electric cars can utilize two types of motors: permanent magnet motors (like the one found in the
Several reports have found that
Consumer use impacts
Air pollution and carbon emissions
Compared to conventional internal combustion engine automobiles, electric cars reduce local
The specific
Particulates
The operation of any car results in non-exhaust emissions such as brake dust, airborne road dust, and tire erosion, which contribute to particulate matter in the air.[46] Particulate matter is dangerous for respiratory health.[47][48] In the UK non-tailpipe particulate emissions from all types of vehicles (including electric vehicles) may be responsible for between 7,000 and 8,000 premature deaths a year.[46]
Lower operational impacts and maintenance needs
Battery electric vehicles have lower maintenance costs compared to internal combustion vehicles since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems onboard last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. Electric cars do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.[49][50]
Low repairability
Electric vehicle batteries are easily totalled.[51][52]
End-of-life
Batteries
Lead-acid
Like internal combustion engine cars, most electric cars, as of 2023, contain
Lithium-ion
Current retirement criteria for lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles cite 80% capacity for end-of-first-life, and 65% capacity for end-of-second-life.[56] The first-life defines the lifespan of the battery's intended use, while the second-life defines the lifespan of the battery's subsequent use-case. Lithium-ion batteries from cars can sometimes be re-used for a second-life in factories[57] or as stationary batteries.[58] Some electric vehicle manufacturers, such as Tesla, claim that a lithium-ion battery that no longer fulfills the requirements of its intended use can be serviced by them directly, thereby lengthening its first-life.[59] Reused electric vehicle batteries can potentially supply 60-100% of the grid-scale lithium-ion energy storage by 2030.[60] The carbon footprint of an electric vehicle lithium-ion battery can be reduced by up to 17% if reused rather than immediately retired.[56] After retirement, direct recycling processes allow reuse of cathode mixtures, which removes processing steps required for manufacturing them. When this is infeasible, individual materials can be obtained through pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy. When lithium-ion batteries are recycled, if they are not handled properly, the harmful substances inside will cause secondary[clarification needed] pollution to the environment.[61] These same processes can also endanger workers and damage their health.[62] Lithium-ion batteries, when disposed of in household trash, can present fire hazards in transport and in landfills, resulting in trash fires that can destroy other recyclable materials and create increased carbon dioxide and particulate matter emissions.[63] Vehicle fires cause local pollution.[64]
Motors
Electric motors are an essential component of electric cars that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy to move the wheels, where neodymium magnets are commonly used in the manufacturing process.[65] There is currently no cost-effective way for the industry to recycle electric motors due to the complicated extraction process of these magnets.[66] Many electric motors end up in the landfill or are shredded because there is no viable recycle or disposal alternative.[66]
Two primary efforts to remedy this dilemma include the DEMETER project and a joint venture between Nissan Motors and Waseda University to lessen the environment impact of electric motors.[66][67] The DEMETER project was a research initiative between the European Union and private entities, which culminated in the development of a recyclable electric motor designed by French company Valeo.[67] Nissan and Waseda identified and refined a new process for extracting rare-earth magnets for re-use in the manufacturing of new electric vehicle motors.[67]
See also
- All-electric mode
- Battery
- Battery fade
- Converting existing vehicle to electric
- Downcycling of end-of-life e-automotive batteries
- Electric power
- Electric velomobiles
- Fuel cell car
- Full cost accounting
- Hybrid electric vehicle
- Induction motor
- Modal shift
- Neighborhood Electric Vehicle
- Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles
- Plug-in hybrid electric car
- Robotic disassembly of electric car batteries
- Solar car
- Vehicles powered by advanced biofuels
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