Nickel

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This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see Nickel (disambiguation).

Nickel, 28Ni
A pitted and lumpy piece of nickel, with the top surface cut flat
Nickel
AppearanceLustrous, metallic, and silver with a gold tinge
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Ni)
Nickel in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
–
↑
Ni
↓
Pd
cobalt ← nickel → copper
kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization379 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity26.07 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1783 1950 2154 2410 2741 3184
Atomic properties
Discovery and first isolation
Axel Fredrik Cronstedt (1751)
Isotopes of nickel
Main isotopes[6] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
58Ni 68.1%
stable
59Ni trace 7.6×104 y ε
59Co
60Ni 26.2% stable
61Ni 1.14% stable
62Ni 3.63% stable
63Ni synth 100 y
β−
63Cu
64Ni 0.926% stable
 Category: Nickel
| references

Nickel is a chemical element; it has symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel is a hard and ductile transition metal. Pure nickel is chemically reactive, but large pieces are slow to react with air under standard conditions because a passivation layer of nickel oxide forms on the surface that prevents further corrosion. Even so, pure native nickel is found in Earth's crust only in tiny amounts, usually in ultramafic rocks,[7][8] and in the interiors of larger nickel–iron meteorites that were not exposed to oxygen when outside Earth's atmosphere.

Meteoric nickel is found in combination with iron, a reflection of the origin of those elements as major end products of supernova nucleosynthesis. An iron–nickel mixture is thought to compose Earth's outer and inner cores.[9]

Use of nickel (as natural meteoric nickel–iron alloy) has been traced as far back as 3500 BCE. Nickel was first isolated and classified as an element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who initially mistook the ore for a copper mineral, in the cobalt mines of Los, Hälsingland, Sweden. The element's name comes from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology, Nickel (similar to Old Nick). Nickel minerals were green, like copper ores, and were known as kupfernickel – Nickel's copper – because they produced no copper. An economically important source of nickel is the iron ore limonite, which is often 1–2% nickel. Other important nickel ore minerals include pentlandite and a mix of Ni-rich natural silicates known as garnierite. Major production sites include the Sudbury region, Canada (which is thought to be of meteoric origin), New Caledonia in the Pacific, and Norilsk, Russia.

Nickel is one of four elements (the others are

enzymes with nickel as an active site.[14]

Properties

Atomic and physical properties

Electron micrograph of a Ni nanocrystal inside a single wall carbon nanotube; scale bar 5 nm[15]

Nickel is a silvery-white metal with a slight golden tinge that takes a high polish. It is one of only four elements that are

thermal conductivity for transition metals.[17] The high compressive strength of 34 GPa, predicted for ideal crystals, is never obtained in the real bulk material due to formation and movement of dislocations. However, it has been reached in Ni nanoparticles.[18]

Electron configuration dispute

Nickel has two atomic

Madelung energy ordering rule, which predicts that 4s is filled before 3d. It is supported by the experimental fact that the lowest energy state of the nickel atom is a 3d8 4s2 energy level, specifically the 3d8(3F) 4s2 3F, J = 4 level.[22][23]

However, each of these two configurations splits into several energy levels due to fine structure,[22][23] and the two sets of energy levels overlap. The average energy of states with [Ar] 3d9 4s1 is actually lower than the average energy of states with [Ar] 3d8 4s2. Therefore, the research literature on atomic calculations quotes the ground state configuration as [Ar] 3d9 4s1.[19]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of nickel

The isotopes of nickel range in

u (48
Ni) to 82 u (82
Ni).[6]

Natural nickel is composed of five stable isotopes, 58
Ni, 60
Ni, 61
Ni, 62
Ni and 64
Ni, of which 58
Ni is the most abundant (68.077% natural abundance).[6]

58
Fe, more abundant nuclides often incorrectly cited as having the highest binding energy.[26] Though this would seem to predict nickel as the most abundant heavy element in the universe, the high rate of photodisintegration of nickel in stellar interiors causes iron to be by far the most abundant.[26]

Nickel-60 is the daughter product of the

60
Fe (half-life 2.6 million years). Due to the long half-life of 60
Fe, its persistence in materials in the Solar System may generate observable variations in the isotopic composition of 60
Ni. Therefore, the abundance of 60
Ni in extraterrestrial material may give insight into the origin of the Solar System and its early history.[27]

At least 26 nickel

meta state.[6]

Radioactive nickel-56 is produced by the

doubly magic", as is 78Ni with 28 protons and 50 neutrons. Both are therefore unusually stable for nuclei with so large a proton–neutron imbalance.[6][30]

Nickel-63 is a contaminant found in the support structure of nuclear reactors. It is produced through neutron capture by nickel-62. Small amounts have also been found near nuclear weapon test sites in the South Pacific.[31]

Occurrence

See also: Ore genesis and Category:Nickel minerals
Widmanstätten pattern showing the two forms of nickel–iron, kamacite and taenite, in an octahedrite meteorite

On Earth, nickel occurs most often in combination with sulfur and iron in pentlandite, with sulfur in millerite, with arsenic in the mineral nickeline, and with arsenic and sulfur in nickel galena.[32] Nickel is commonly found in iron meteorites as the alloys kamacite and taenite. Nickel in meteorites was first detected in 1799 by Joseph-Louis Proust, a French chemist who then worked in Spain. Proust analyzed samples of the meteorite from Campo del Cielo (Argentina), which had been obtained in 1783 by Miguel Rubín de Celis, discovering the presence in them of nickel (about 10%) along with iron.[33]

The bulk of nickel is mined from two types of ore deposits. The first is laterite, where the principal ore mineral mixtures are nickeliferous limonite, (Fe,Ni)O(OH), and garnierite (a mixture of various hydrous nickel and nickel-rich silicates). The second is magmatic sulfide deposits, where the principal ore mineral is pentlandite: (Ni,Fe)9S8.[34]

Indonesia and Australia have the biggest estimated reserves, at 43.6% of world total.[35]

Identified land-based resources throughout the world averaging 1% nickel or greater comprise at least 130 million tons of nickel (about the double of known reserves). About 60% is in

laterites and 40% in sulfide deposits.[36]

On

nickel iron meteorites.[37]

Compounds

Main article: Nickel compounds

The most common oxidation state of nickel is +2, but compounds of Ni0, Ni+, and Ni3+ are well known, and the exotic oxidation states Ni2− and Ni− have been produced and studied.[38]

Nickel(0)

A nickel atom with four single bonds to carbonyl (carbon triple-bonded to oxygen; bonds via the carbon) groups that are laid out tetrahedrally around it
Tetracarbonyl nickel

Nickel tetracarbonyl (Ni(CO)4), discovered by Ludwig Mond,[39] is a volatile, highly toxic liquid at room temperature. On heating, the complex decomposes back to nickel and carbon monoxide:

Ni(CO)4 ⇌ Ni + 4 CO

This behavior is exploited in the Mond process for purifying nickel, as described above. The related nickel(0) complex bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0) is a useful catalyst in organonickel chemistry because the cyclooctadiene (or cod) ligands are easily displaced.

Nickel(I)

Structure of [Ni2(CN)6]4− ion[40]

Nickel(I) complexes are uncommon, but one example is the tetrahedral complex NiBr(PPh3)3. Many nickel(I) complexes have Ni–Ni bonding, such as the dark red

diamagnetic K4[Ni2(CN)6] prepared by reduction of K2[Ni2(CN)6] with sodium amalgam. This compound is oxidized in water, liberating H2.[40]

It is thought that the nickel(I) oxidation state is important to nickel-containing enzymes, such as

protons to H2.[41]

Nickel(II)

Color of various Ni(II) complexes in aqueous solution. From left to right, [Ni(NH3)6]2+, [Ni(NH2CH2CH2NH2)]2+, [NiCl4]2−, [Ni(H2O)6]2+
hydrated nickel(II) sulfate

Nickel(II) forms compounds with all common anions, including

sulfate, carbonate, hydroxide, carboxylates, and halides. Nickel(II) sulfate is produced in large amounts by dissolving nickel metal or oxides in sulfuric acid, forming both a hexa- and heptahydrate[42] useful for electroplating nickel. Common salts of nickel, such as chloride, nitrate, and sulfate, dissolve in water to give green solutions of the metal aquo complex [Ni(H2O)6]2+.[43]

The four halides form nickel compounds, which are solids with molecules with octahedral Ni centres. Nickel(II) chloride is most common, and its behavior is illustrative of the other halides. Nickel(II) chloride is made by dissolving nickel or its oxide in hydrochloric acid. It is usually found as the green hexahydrate, whose formula is usually written NiCl2·6H2O. When dissolved in water, this salt forms the metal aquo complex [Ni(H2O)6]2+. Dehydration of NiCl2·6H2O gives yellow anhydrous NiCl2.[44]

Some tetracoordinate nickel(II) complexes, e.g.

diamagnetic. In having properties of magnetic equilibrium and formation of octahedral complexes, they contrast with the divalent complexes of the heavier group 10 metals, palladium(II) and platinum(II), which form only square-planar geometry.[38]

Nickelocene is known and has an electron count of 20. It is much less stable than ferrocene. Many chemical reactions of nickelocene tend to yield 18-electron products.[45]

Nickel(III) and (IV)

Nickel(III) antimonide

Many Ni(III) compounds are known. Ni(III) forms simple salts with fluoride[46] or oxide ions. Ni(III) can be stabilized by σ-donor ligands such as thiols and organophosphines.[40]

Ni(III) occurs in nickel oxide hydroxide, which is used as the cathode in many rechargeable batteries, including nickel–cadmium, nickel–iron, nickel–hydrogen, and nickel–metal hydride, and used by certain manufacturers in Li-ion batteries.[47]

Ni(IV) occurs in the mixed oxide BaNiO3. Ni(IV) remains a rare oxidation state and very few compounds are known.[48][49][50][51]

History

Because nickel ores are easily mistaken for ores of silver and copper, understanding of this metal and of its use is relatively recent. But unintentional use of nickel is ancient, and can be traced back as far as 3500 BCE. Bronzes from what is now Syria have been found to contain as much as 2% nickel.[52] Some ancient Chinese manuscripts suggest that "white copper" (cupronickel, known as baitong) was used there in 1700–1400 BCE. This Paktong white copper was exported to Britain as early as the 17th century, but the nickel content of this alloy was not discovered until 1822.[53] Coins of nickel-copper alloy were minted by Bactrian kings Agathocles, Euthydemus II, and Pantaleon in the 2nd century BCE, possibly out of the Chinese cupronickel.[54]

Nickeline/niccolite

In medieval Germany, a metallic yellow mineral was found in the Ore Mountains that resembled copper ore. But when miners were unable to get any copper from it, they blamed a mischievous sprite of German mythology, Nickel (similar to Old Nick), for besetting the copper. They called this ore Kupfernickel from German Kupfer 'copper'.[55][56][57][58] This ore is now known as the mineral nickeline (formerly niccolite[59]), a nickel arsenide. In 1751, Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt tried to extract copper from kupfernickel at a cobalt mine in the village of Los, Sweden, and instead produced a white metal that he named nickel after the spirit that had given its name to the mineral.[60] In modern German, Kupfernickel or Kupfer-Nickel designates the alloy cupronickel.[17]

Originally, the only source for nickel was the rare Kupfernickel. Beginning in 1824, nickel was obtained as a byproduct of cobalt blue production. The first large-scale smelting of nickel began in Norway in 1848 from nickel-rich pyrrhotite. The introduction of nickel in steel production in 1889 increased the demand for nickel; the nickel deposits of New Caledonia, discovered in 1865, provided most of the world's supply between 1875 and 1915. The discovery of the large deposits in the Sudbury Basin in Canada in 1883, in Norilsk-Talnakh in Russia in 1920, and in the Merensky Reef in South Africa in 1924 made large-scale nickel production possible.[53]

Coinage

Dutch coins made of pure nickel

Aside from the aforementioned Bactrian coins, nickel was not a component of coins until the mid-19th century.[61]

Canada

99.9% nickel five-cent coins were struck in Canada (the world's largest nickel producer at the time) during non-war years from 1922 to 1981; the metal content made these coins magnetic.[62] During the war years 1942–1945, most or all nickel was removed from Canadian and US coins to save it for making armor.[56] Canada used 99.9% nickel from 1968 in its higher-value coins until 2000.[63]

Switzerland

Coins of nearly pure nickel were first used in 1881 in Switzerland.[64]

United Kingdom

Birmingham forged nickel coins in c. 1833 for trading in Malaysia.[65]

United States

Nickel Prices 2018–2022
See also: 2020s commodities boom

In the United States, the term "nickel" or "nick" originally applied to the copper-nickel

ferromagnetic
.

The US nickel coin contains 0.04 ounces (1.1 g) of nickel, which at the April 2007 price was worth 6.5 cents, along with 3.75 grams of copper worth about 3 cents, with a total metal value of more than 9 cents. Since the face value of a nickel is 5 cents, this made it an attractive target for melting by people wanting to sell the metals at a profit. The United States Mint, anticipating this practice, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of cents and nickels.[66] Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 and/or a maximum of five years in prison.[67] As of September 19, 2013, the melt value of a US nickel (copper and nickel included) is $0.045 (90% of the face value).[68]

Current use

In the 21st century, the high price of nickel has led to some replacement of the metal in coins around the world. Coins still made with nickel alloys include one- and two-euro coins, 5¢, 10¢, 25¢, 50¢, and $1 U.S. coins,[69] and 20p, 50p, £1, and £2 UK coins. From 2012 on the nickel-alloy used for 5p and 10p UK coins was replaced with nickel-plated steel. This ignited a public controversy regarding the problems of people with nickel allergy.[64]

World production

Time trend of nickel production[70]
Nickel ores grade evolution in some leading nickel producing countries or regions

An estimated 3.3 million tonnes (t) of nickel per year are mined worldwide;

rare-earth metals and are estimated to be 1.7% nickel.[74] With advances in science and engineering, regulation is currently being set in place by the International Seabed Authority to ensure that these nodules are collected in an environmentally conscientious manner while adhering to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.[75]

The one place in the United States where nickel has been profitably mined is

Eagle mine project is a new nickel mine in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. Construction was completed in 2013, and operations began in the third quarter of 2014.[78] In the first full year of operation, the Eagle Mine produced 18,000 t.[78]

Production

Evolution of the annual nickel extraction, according to ores

Nickel is obtained through extractive metallurgy: it is extracted from ore by conventional roasting and reduction processes that yield metal of greater than 75% purity. In many stainless steel applications, 75% pure nickel can be used without further purification, depending on impurities.[42]

Traditionally, most sulfide ores are processed using

Sherritt-Gordon process. First, copper is removed by adding hydrogen sulfide, leaving a concentrate of cobalt and nickel. Then, solvent extraction is used to separate the cobalt and nickel, with the final nickel content greater than 86%.[79]

Electrolytically refined nickel nodule, with green, crystallized nickel-electrolyte salts visible in the pores

Electrorefining

A second common refining process is leaching the metal matte into a nickel salt solution, followed by electrowinning the nickel from solution by plating it onto a cathode as electrolytic nickel.[80]

Mond process

Highly purified nickel spheres made by the Mond process
Main article: Mond process

The purest metal is obtained from nickel oxide by the

nickel carbonyl. In a similar reaction with iron, iron pentacarbonyl can form, though this reaction is slow. If necessary, the nickel may be separated by distillation. Dicobalt octacarbonyl is also formed in nickel distillation as a by-product, but it decomposes to tetracobalt dodecacarbonyl at the reaction temperature to give a non-volatile solid.[82]

Nickel is obtained from nickel carbonyl by one of two processes. It may be passed through a large chamber at high temperatures in which tens of thousands of nickel spheres (pellets) are constantly stirred. The carbonyl decomposes and deposits pure nickel onto the spheres. In the alternate process, nickel carbonyl is decomposed in a smaller chamber at 230 °C to create a fine nickel powder. The byproduct carbon monoxide is recirculated and reused. The highly pure nickel product is known as "carbonyl nickel".[83]

Market value

The market price of nickel surged throughout 2006 and the early months of 2007; as of April 5, 2007, the metal was trading at

ferro-nickel alloys or lower-grade purities.[89]

Applications

Nickel foam (top) and its internal structure (bottom)

Global use of nickel is currently 68% in stainless steel, 10% in nonferrous alloys, 9% electroplating, 7% alloy steel, 3% foundries, and 4% other (including batteries).[11]

Nickel is used in many recognizable industrial and consumer products, including stainless steel, alnico magnets, coinage, rechargeable batteries (e.g. nickel–iron), electric guitar strings, microphone capsules, plating on plumbing fixtures,[90] and special alloys such as permalloy, elinvar, and invar. It is used for plating and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is preeminently an alloy metal, and its chief use is in nickel steels and nickel cast irons, in which it typically increases the tensile strength, toughness, and elastic limit. It is widely used in many other alloys, including nickel brasses and bronzes and alloys with copper, chromium, aluminium, lead, cobalt, silver, and gold (Inconel, Incoloy, Monel, Nimonic).[80]

A "horseshoe magnet" made of alnico nickel alloy

Because nickel is resistant to corrosion, it was occasionally used as a substitute for decorative silver. Nickel was also occasionally used in some countries after 1859 as a cheap coinage metal (see above), but in the later years of the 20th century, it was replaced by cheaper stainless steel (i.e., iron) alloys, except in the United States and Canada.[61]

Nickel is an excellent alloying agent for certain precious metals and is used in the fire assay as a collector of platinum group elements (PGE). As such, nickel can fully collect all six PGEs from ores, and can partially collect gold. High-throughput nickel mines may also do PGE recovery (mainly platinum and palladium); examples are Norilsk, Russia and the Sudbury Basin, Canada.[91]

Nickel foam or nickel mesh is used in gas diffusion electrodes for alkaline fuel cells.[92][93]

Nickel and its alloys are often used as catalysts for hydrogenation reactions. Raney nickel, a finely divided nickel-aluminium alloy, is one common form, though related catalysts are also used, including Raney-type catalysts.[94]

Nickel is naturally magnetostrictive: in the presence of a magnetic field, the material undergoes a small change in length.[95][96] The magnetostriction of nickel is on the order of 50 ppm and is negative, indicating that it contracts.[97]

Nickel is used as a binder in the cemented tungsten carbide or hardmetal industry and used in proportions of 6% to 12% by weight. Nickel makes the tungsten carbide magnetic and adds corrosion-resistance to the cemented parts, though the hardness is less than those with cobalt binder.[98]

63
Ni, with a half-life of 100.1 years, is useful in krytron devices as a beta particle (high-speed electron) emitter to make ionization by the keep-alive electrode more reliable.[99] It is being investigated as a power source for betavoltaic batteries.[100][101]

Around 27% of all nickel production is used for engineering, 10% for building and construction, 14% for tubular products, 20% for metal goods, 14% for transport, 11% for electronic goods, and 5% for other uses.[11]

contaminant. Forte et al. found that type 2 diabetic patients have 0.89 ng/mL of Ni in the blood relative to 0.77 ng/mL in control subjects.[102]

superelasticity
.

Biological role

It was not recognized until the 1970s, but nickel is known to play an important role in the biology of some plants,

trypanosomal parasites[111] (in other organisms, including yeast and mammals, this enzyme contains divalent Zn2+).[112][113][114][115][116]

Dietary nickel may affect human health through infections by nickel-dependent bacteria, but nickel may also be an essential nutrient for bacteria living in the large intestine, in effect functioning as a

tolerable upper intake level of dietary nickel is 1 mg/day as soluble nickel salts. Estimated dietary intake is 70 to 100 µg/day; less than 10% is absorbed. What is absorbed is excreted in urine.[118] Relatively large amounts of nickel – comparable to the estimated average ingestion above – leach into food cooked in stainless steel. For example, the amount of nickel leached after 10 cooking cycles into one serving of tomato sauce averages 88 µg.[119][120]

Nickel released from

mass extinction.[121]

Toxicity

Further information: Nickel allergy
Nickel
Hazards
GHS labelling:
GHS08: Health hazardGHS07: Exclamation markGHS09: Environmental hazard
Danger
H317, H351, H372, H412
P201, P202, P260, P264, P270, P272, P273, P280, P302+P352, P308+P313, P333+P313, P363, P405, P501[122]
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 2: Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury. E.g. chloroformFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
2
0
0

The major source of nickel exposure is oral consumption, as nickel is essential to plants.

chelating action of albumin.[citation needed
]

The average daily exposure is not a threat to human health. Most nickel absorbed by humans is removed by the kidneys and passed out of the body through urine or is eliminated through the gastrointestinal tract without being absorbed. Nickel is not a cumulative poison, but larger doses or chronic inhalation exposure may be toxic, even carcinogenic, and constitute an occupational hazard.[125]

Nickel compounds are classified as human carcinogens[126][127][128][129] based on increased respiratory cancer risks observed in epidemiological studies of sulfidic ore refinery workers.[130] This is supported by the positive results of the NTP bioassays with Ni sub-sulfide and Ni oxide in rats and mice.[131][132] The human and animal data consistently indicate a lack of carcinogenicity via the oral route of exposure and limit the carcinogenicity of nickel compounds to respiratory tumours after inhalation.[133][134] Nickel metal is classified as a suspect carcinogen;[126][127][128] there is consistency between the absence of increased respiratory cancer risks in workers predominantly exposed to metallic nickel[130] and the lack of respiratory tumours in a rat lifetime inhalation carcinogenicity study with nickel metal powder.[135] In the rodent inhalation studies with various nickel compounds and nickel metal, increased lung inflammations with and without bronchial lymph node hyperplasia or fibrosis were observed.[129][131][135][136] In rat studies, oral ingestion of water-soluble nickel salts can trigger perinatal mortality in pregnant animals.[137] Whether these effects are relevant to humans is unclear as epidemiological studies of highly exposed female workers have not shown adverse developmental toxicity effects.[138]

People can be exposed to nickel in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, and contact with skin or eye. The

Nickel carbonyl [Ni(CO)4] is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of metal carbonyls is a function of both the toxicity of the metal and the off-gassing of carbon monoxide from the carbonyl functional groups; nickel carbonyl is also explosive in air.[140][141]

pierced ears.[143] Nickel allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy, red skin. Many earrings are now made without nickel or with low-release nickel[144] to address this problem. The amount allowed in products that contact human skin is now regulated by the European Union. In 2002, researchers found that the nickel released by 1 and 2 euro coins, far exceeded those standards. This is believed to be due to a galvanic reaction.[145] Nickel was voted Allergen of the Year in 2008 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.[146] In August 2015, the American Academy of Dermatology adopted a position statement on the safety of nickel: "Estimates suggest that contact dermatitis, which includes nickel sensitization, accounts for approximately $1.918 billion and affects nearly 72.29 million people."[142]

Reports show that both the nickel-induced activation of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1) and the up-regulation of hypoxia-inducible genes are caused by depletion of intracellular

ascorbate. The addition of ascorbate to the culture medium increased the intracellular ascorbate level and reversed both the metal-induced stabilization of HIF-1- and HIF-1α-dependent gene expression.[147][148]

Nickel in popular culture

In the second Oz book, The Marvelous Land of Oz (by L. Frank Baum, published by Reilly & Britton, 1904), the Tin Woodman states that he has had his tin body nickel-plated. He is thereafter very careful not to allow his nickel plating to get scratched, nicked, or marred.[149]

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