Plug-in hybrid

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about hybrid vehicles whose battery may be externally charged. For vehicles that are propelled only by electric motors, using energy stored in rechargeable batteries, see battery electric vehicle. For the more general category of vehicles with plug-in rechargeable capabilities, see plug-in electric vehicle.
Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV was once world's all-time best-selling plug-in hybrid until 2022.[4] Cumulative global sales reached 290,000 units in September 2021.[5]
The Chevrolet Volt was the world's top selling plug-in hybrid until September 2018.[6]
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A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) or simply plug-in hybrid is a type of

mopeds, military vehicles and boats.[7]

Similar to

gasoline/diesel engine, akin to a conventional HEV if the battery charge is depleted. This feature helps alleviate range anxiety, particularly in areas lacking sufficient charging infrastructure
.

Mass-produced PHEVs have been available to the public in

Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV at the Volt's end of production in 2019.[11] By 2021, BYD Auto emerged as the largest plug-in hybrid vehicle manufacturer in the world. As of May 2024, BYD plug-in hybrid cumulative sales surpassed 3.6 million units.[12] The BYD Song DM line of SUVs contributed over 1.05 million units.[13][14][2][15]

Terminology

Other terms sometimes used for plug-in hybrids are "grid-connected hybrids", "Gas-Optional Hybrid Electric Vehicle" or simply "gas-optional hybrids".

series plug-in hybrid an "Extended-Range Electric Vehicle".[19][20]

History

Main article: History of plug-in hybrids
automobile
.

Invention and early interest

The

Professor Andrew Frank,[23] who has been called the "father of the modern plug-in hybrid".[24][25][26]

The July 1969 issue of Popular Science featured an article on the General Motors XP-883 plug-in hybrid. The concept commuter vehicle housed six 12-volt lead–acid batteries in the trunk area and a transverse-mounted DC electric motor turning a front-wheel drive. The car could be plugged into a standard North American 120 volt AC outlet for recharging.[27]

Revival of interest

Lithium-ion battery pack, with cover removed, in a CalCars "PRIUS+" plug-in hybrid converted Toyota Prius converted by EnergyCS

In 2003,

Kangoo, in Europe. In addition to its engine, it could be plugged into a standard outlet and recharged to 95% range in about 4 hours.[28] After selling about 500 vehicles, primarily in France, Norway and the UK, the Elect'road was redesigned in 2007.[29]

With the availability of hybrid vehicles and the rising gas prices in the United States starting around 2002, interest in plug-in hybrids increased.[30] Some plug-in hybrids were conversions of existing hybrids; for example, the 2004 CalCars conversion of a Prius to add lead acid batteries and a range of up to 15 km (9 mi) using only electric power.[31]

In 2006, both Toyota and General Motors announced plans for plug-in hybrids.[32][33] GM's Saturn Vue project was cancelled, but the Toyota plug-in was certified for road use in Japan in 2007.[34]

In 2007, Quantum Technologies and

Fisker Coachbuild, LLC announced the launch of a joint venture in Fisker Automotive.[35] Fisker intended to build a US$80,000 luxury PHEV with 60 km (37 mi) of electric range, the Fisker Karma, initially scheduled for late 2009.[36]

In 2007,

Typ-1 two seater. That company folded in December 2011.[37]

In 2007, Chinese car manufacturer BYD Auto, owned by China's largest mobile phone battery maker, announced it would be introducing a production PHEV with 60 km (37 mi) of electric range in a form of a sedan in China in the second half of 2008. BYD exhibited it in January 2008 at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit. Based on BYD's midsize F6 sedan, it uses lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4)-based batteries instead of lithium-ion, and can be recharged to 70% of capacity in 10 minutes.[38]

Three plug-in converted Toyota Prius recharging at San Francisco City Hall public charging station

In 2007, Ford delivered the first

flexible-fuel plug-in hybrid SUV, which was delivered in June 2008.[40] This demonstration fleet of plug-ins has been in field testing with utility company fleets in the U.S. and Canada,[41] and during the first two years since the program began, the fleet has logged more than 75,000 miles.[42] In August 2009 Ford delivered the first Escape Plug-in equipped with intelligent vehicle-to-grid (V2G) communications and control system technology, and Ford plans to equip all 21 plug-in hybrid Escapes with the vehicle-to-grid communications technology.[42] Sales of the Escape PHEV were scheduled for 2012.[41]

On January 14, 2008, Toyota announced they would start sales of lithium-ion battery PHEVs by 2010,[43][44] but later in the year Toyota indicated they would be offered to commercial fleets in 2009.[45]

On March 27, the

Chrysler Town and Country mini-van, both PHEV with series powertrains, and an all-electric Dodge sports car, and said that one of the three vehicles would go into production.[50][51]

On October 3, the U.S. enacted the

kWh and the credit phases out after the automaker has sold at least 200,000 vehicles in the U.S.[54]

Series production

Launched in China in December 2008, the BYD F3DM became the world's first mass-produced plug-in hybrid automobile.[55]
The BYD Qin, released in China in December 2013, replaced the F3DM.[56]

On December 15, 2008, BYD Auto began selling its

China, becoming the first production plug-in hybrid sold in the world, though initially was available only for corporate and government customers.[57][58][59] Sales to the general public began in Shenzhen in March 2010,[8][9] but because the F3DM nearly doubles the price of cars that run on conventional fuel, BYD expects subsidies from the local government to make the plug-in affordable to personal buyers.[8] Toyota tested 600 pre-production Prius Plug-ins in Europe and North America in 2009 and 2010.[60][61]

Volvo V70 Plug-in Hybrids in 2009 but did not proceed with production. The V60 plug-in hybrid
was released in 2011 and was available for sale.

In October 2010

flex-fuel operation on ethanol, or methanol as well as regular gasoline.[62][63] The lithium battery pack provides an all-electric range of 60 kilometres (37 mi), and the 1.2-liter flex-fuel engine kicks in to allow to extend the range to more than 500 kilometres (310 mi).[62][63]

GM officially launched the Chevrolet Volt in the U.S. on November 30, 2010, and retail deliveries began in December 2010.

Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid in Sweden by late 2012.[69]

The

Ford Fusion Energi began in February 2013.[72][73] BYD Auto stopped production of its BYD F3DM due to low sales,[74] and its successor, the BYD Qin, began sales in Costa Rica in November 2013, with sales in other countries in Latin America scheduled to begin in 2014.[75][76][77] Qin deliveries began in China in mid December 2013.[56]

The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid was launched in Japan and the U.S. in early 2012, and Europe by mid-2012.

Deliveries to retail customers of the limited edition

Volkswagen Golf GTE were registered in Germany in August 2014.[82]

Volkswagen XL driver side with door opened

In 2013, Volkswagen started production on the Volkswagen XL1, a two-person limited production diesel-powered plug-in hybrid vehicle designed to be able to travel 100 km/L (280 mpg‑imp; 235 mpg‑US) on diesel, while still being both roadworthy and practical. The model is built with a 800 cc (49 cu in) TDI twin-cylinder, common-rail 35 kW (47 hp) turbo-diesel and a 20 kW (27 hp) electric motor. The model is unique in that it is one of the only mass produced plug-in diesel hybrid vehicles and one of the only mass produced diesel hybrid vehicles in general.[83][84][85]

In December 2014 BMW announced the group is planning to offer plug-in hybrid versions of all its core-brand models using eDrive technology developed for its

Shanghai Motor Show.[87] The second generation Chevrolet Volt was unveiled at the January 2015 North American International Auto Show,[88] and retail deliveries began in the U.S. and Canada in October 2015.[89][90]

In March 2015

Hyundai Sonata PHEV
.

Global combined

Volt/Ampera family sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in October 2015.[93] By the end of 2015, over 517,000 highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars have been sold worldwide since December 2008 out of total global sales of more than 1.25 million light-duty plug-in electric cars.[94][95]

Sales of the Porsche 918 Spyder began in Europe in May 2014.
The BMW i8 was released in Europe in June 2014.

In February 2016, BMW announced the introduction of the "iPerformance" model designation, which will be given to all BMW plug-in hybrid vehicles from July 2016. The aim is to provide a visible indicator of the transfer of technology from

BMW 330e iPerformance.[97]

Ioniq Plug-in, which is expected to achieve a fuel economy of 125 mpg‑e (27 kW⋅h/100 mi; 16.8 kW⋅h/100 km) in all-electric mode.[99] The Ioniq Plug-in is scheduled to be released in the U.S. in the fourth quarter of 2017.[100]

The second generation Prius plug-in hybrid, called

MPGe rating in EV mode of any vehicle rated by EPA.[104][105] Unlike its predecessor, the Prime runs entirely on electricity in EV mode.[106] Global sales of the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV passed the 100,000 unit milestone in March 2016.[107][108] BYD Qin sales in China reached the 50,000 unit milestone in April 2016, becoming the fourth plug-in hybrid to pass that mark.[109]

In June 2016, Nissan announced it will introduce a compact

Frankfurt Auto Show.[110]

In January 2016, Chrysler debuted its plug-in hybrid minivan, the

Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid, with an EPA rated electric-only range of 48 km (30 miles).[111]
This was the first hybrid minivan of any type. It was first sold in the United States, Canada, and Mexico in 2017.

In December 2017, Honda began retail deliveries of the Honda Clarity Plug-In Hybrid in the United States and Canada, with an EPA rated electric-only range of 76 km (47 miles).[112]

Technology

Powertrains

Main article:
Hybrid vehicle drivetrains
battery from its engine only, a plug-in hybrid can obtain a significant amount of the energy required to recharge its battery from external sources.[citation needed
]

Dual plug-in hybrids

These contain two different energy recovery systems.

The

dual hybrid
.

The

MGU-H.[113][114]

Fuel cell plug-in hybrid

Honda CR-V e:FCEV is a plug-in hybrid that pairs a battery, an electric motor, hydrogen tank and a fuel cell
.

The

hydrogen tanks with a total capacity of 4.3 kg (9.5 lb), a 17.7 kWh battery with plug-in charging capability with no internal combustion engine.[115]

Charging systems

The battery charger can be on-board or external to the vehicle. The process for an on-board charger is best explained as AC power being converted into DC power, resulting in the battery being charged.[116] On-board chargers are limited in capacity by their weight and size, and by the limited capacity of general-purpose AC outlets. Dedicated off-board chargers can be as large and powerful as the user can afford, but require returning to the charger; high-speed chargers may be shared by multiple vehicles.

Using the electric motor's inverter allows the motor windings to act as the transformer coils, and the existing high-power inverter as the AC-to-DC charger. As these components are already required on the car, and are designed to handle any practical power capability, they can be used to create a very powerful form of on-board charger with no significant additional weight or size. AC Propulsion uses this charging method, referred to as "reductive charging".[117]

Modes of operation

A plug-in hybrid operates in

all-electric mode, either at low speeds only or at all speeds. These modes manage the vehicle's battery discharge strategy, and their use has a direct effect on the size and type of battery required:[118]

Charge-depleting mode allows a fully charged PHEV to operate exclusively (or depending on the vehicle, almost exclusively, except during hard acceleration) on electric power until its battery state of charge is depleted to a predetermined level, at which time the vehicle's internal combustion engine or fuel cell will be engaged. This period is the vehicle's all-electric range. This is the only mode that a battery electric vehicle can operate in, hence their limited range.[119]

Mixed mode describes a trip using a combination of multiple modes. For example, a car may begin a trip in low speed charge-depleting mode, then enter onto a freeway and operate in blended mode. The driver might exit the freeway and drive without the internal combustion engine until all-electric range is exhausted. The vehicle can revert to a charge sustaining-mode until the final destination is reached. This contrasts with a charge-depleting trip that would be driven within the limits of a PHEV's all-electric range.

Most PHEV's also have two additional charge sustaining modes:

Battery Hold; the electric motor is locked out and the vehicle operates exclusively on combustion power, so that whatever charge is left in the battery remains for when mixed mode or full electric operation are re-engaged, whilst regenerative braking will still be available to boost the battery charge. On some PHEVs, vehicle services that use the traction battery (such as heating and air conditioning) are placed in a low power consumption mode to further conserve the remaining battery charge. The lock-out of the electric motor is automatically overridden (charge permitting) should full acceleration be required.

Self Charge; the electric motor's armature is engaged to the transmission, but is connected to the battery so that it runs as a generator and therefore recharges the battery whilst the car is in motion, although this comes at the expense of higher fuel consumption, as the combustion engine has to both power the vehicle itself and charge the battery. This is useful for 'charging on the move' when there are limited places to plug the vehicle in.

Electric power storage

Further information: Electric vehicle battery and Charging station

The optimum battery size varies depending on whether the aim is to reduce fuel consumption, running costs, or emissions, but a 2009 study[120] concluded that "The best choice of PHEV battery capacity depends critically on the distance that the vehicle will be driven between charges. Our results suggest that for urban driving conditions and frequent charges every 10 miles or less, a low-capacity PHEV sized with an AER (all-electric range) of about 7 miles would be a robust choice for minimizing gasoline consumption, cost, and greenhouse gas emissions. For less frequent charging, every 20–100 miles, PHEVs release fewer GHGs, but HEVs are more cost effective."

PHEVs typically require deeper

battery charging and discharging cycles than conventional hybrids. Because the number of full cycles influences battery life, this may be less than in traditional HEVs, which do not deplete their batteries as fully. Nonetheless, some authors argue that PHEVs will soon become standard in the automobile industry.[121] Design issues and trade-offs against battery life, capacity, heat dissipation, weight, costs, and safety need to be solved.[122] Advanced battery technology is under development, promising greater energy densities by both mass and volume,[123] and battery life expectancy is expected to increase.[124]

The cathodes of some early 2007 lithium-ion batteries are made from lithium-cobalt metal oxide. This material is expensive, and cells made with it can release oxygen if overcharged. If the cobalt is replaced with iron phosphates, the cells will not burn or release oxygen under any charge. At early 2007 gasoline and electricity prices, the break-even point is reached after six to ten years of operation. The payback period may be longer for plug-in hybrids, because of their larger, more expensive batteries.[125]

Nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries can be recycled; Toyota, for example, has a recycling program in place under which dealers are paid a US$200 credit for each battery returned.[126] Plug-in hybrids typically use larger battery packs than comparable conventional hybrids, however, and thus require more resources. Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) has suggested that utilities could purchase used batteries for backup and load leveling purposes. They state that while these used batteries may be no longer usable in vehicles, their residual capacity still has significant value.[127] More recently, General Motors (GM) has said it has been "approached by utilities interested in using recycled Volt batteries as a power storage system, a secondary market that could bring down the cost of the Volt and other plug-in vehicles for consumers".[128]

supercapacitor and a lead acid battery in a single unit, creating a hybrid car battery that lasts longer, costs less and is more powerful than current technologies used in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).[131]

Conversions of production vehicles

regulators
installed into WhiteBird, a PHEV-10 conversion of a Toyota Prius
Further information: Electric vehicle conversion
See also: CalCars

There are several companies that are converting fossil fuel non-hybrid vehicles to plug-in hybrids:[132][133]

Aftermarket conversion of an existing production hybrid to a plug-in hybrid[134] typically involves increasing the capacity of the vehicle's battery pack
and adding an on-board AC-to-DC charger. Ideally, the vehicle's powertrain software would be reprogrammed to make full use of the battery pack's additional energy storage capacity and power output.

Many early plug-in hybrid electric vehicle conversions have been based on the Toyota Prius.[135] Some of the systems have involved replacement of the vehicle's original NiMH battery pack and its electronic control unit. Others add an additional battery back onto the original battery pack.[136]

Target market

In recent years, demand for all- electric vehicles, especially in the United States market, has been driven by government incentives through subsidies, lobbyists, and taxes.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
5-cycle test) significantly exceeds this threshold. In 2021, for the 2022 model year, the Nissan Leaf has an EPA rated range of 212 miles (341 km) for the 60 kWh model.

All-electric range, in miles, for several popular model year 2013 plug-in hybrids, as observed in testing by Popular Mechanics magazine. Providing greater all-electric range adds cost and entails compromises, so different all-electric ranges may suit different customers' needs.

Plug-in hybrids provide the extended range and potential for refueling of conventional hybrids while enabling drivers to use battery electric power for at least a significant part of their typical daily driving. The average trip to or from work in the United States in 2009 was 11.8 miles (19.0 km),[140] while the average distance commuted to work in England and Wales in 2011 was slightly lower at 9.3 miles (15 km).[141] Since building a PHEV with a longer all-electric range adds weight and cost, and reduces cargo and/or passenger space, there is not a specific all-electric range that is optimal. The accompanying graph shows the observed all-electric range, in miles, for four popular U.S. market plug-in hybrids, as tested by Popular Mechanics magazine.[142]

A key design parameter of the Chevrolet Volt was a target of 40 miles (64 km) for the all-electric range, selected to keep the battery size small and lower costs, and mainly because research showed that 78% of daily

kWh considering that the battery would be used until the state of charge (SOC) of the battery reached 30%.[143][144]

In October 2014 General Motors reported, based on data collected through its

Fusion Energi commuter could go the entire day using no gasoline, if the car is fully charged both, before leaving for work and before leaving for home. According to Ford data, currently most customers are likely charging their vehicles only at home.[146]

The 2015 edition of the EPA's annual report "Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends" estimates the following utility factors for 2015

Toyota Prius PHV.[147] A 2014 analysis conducted by the Idaho National Laboratory using a sample of 21,600 all-electric cars and plug-in hybrids, found that Volt owners traveled on average 9,112 miles in all-electric mode (e-miles) per year, while Leaf owners traveled 9,697 e-miles per year, despite the Volt's shorter all-electric range, about half of the Leaf's.[148]

Comparison to non-plug-in hybrids

Fuel efficiency and petroleum displacement

Main articles:
Well-to-wheel
See also: Fuel efficiency
fuel economy label for blended or series-parallel
plug-in hybrid

Plug-in hybrids have the potential to be even more efficient than conventional hybrids because a more limited use of the PHEV's internal combustion engine may allow the engine to be used at closer to its maximum efficiency. While a Toyota Prius is likely to convert fuel to motive energy on average at about 30% efficiency (well below the engine's 38% peak efficiency), the engine of a PHEV with 70 km (43 mi) of electric range would be likely to operate far more often near its peak efficiency because the batteries can serve the modest power needs at times when the combustion engine would be forced to run well below its peak efficiency.[119] The actual efficiency achieved depends on losses from electricity generation, inversion, battery charging/discharging, the motor controller and motor itself, the way a vehicle is used (its duty cycle), and the opportunities to recharge by connecting to the electrical grid.

Each

energy resilience.[150]

The actual

fuel economy label a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios: 30, 45, 60 and 75 mi (121 km) driven between a full charge, and a never charge scenario.[152] According to this table the fuel economy goes up to 168 mpg‑US (1.40 L/100 km; 202 mpg‑imp) equivalent (MPG-e) with 45 mi (72 km) driven between full charges.[151]

For the more comprehensive

fuel economy and environment label that will be mandatory in the U.S. beginning in model year 2013, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued two separate fuel economy labels for plug-in hybrids because of their design complexity, as PHEVS can operate in two or three operating modes: all-electric, blended, and gasoline-only.[153][154] One label is for series hybrid or extended range electric vehicle (like the Chevy Volt), with all-electric and gasoline-only modes; and a second label for blended mode or series-parallel hybrid, that includes a combination of both gasoline and plug-in electric operation; and gasoline only, like a conventional hybrid vehicle.[153][154]

The

Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) developed their recommended practice in 1999 for testing and reporting the fuel economy of hybrid vehicles and included language to address PHEVs. An SAE committee is currently working to review procedures for testing and reporting the fuel economy of PHEVs.[155] The Toronto Atmospheric Fund tested ten retrofitted plug-in hybrid vehicles that achieved an average of 5.8 litres per 100 kilometre or 40.6 miles per gallon over six months in 2008, which was considered below the technology's potential.[156]

In real world testing using normal drivers, some Prius PHEV conversions may not achieve much better fuel economy than HEVs. For example, a plug-in Prius fleet, each with a 30 miles (48 km) all-electric range, averaged only 51 mpg‑US (4.6 L/100 km; 61 mpg‑imp) in a 17,000-mile (27,000 km) test in Seattle,[157] and similar results with the same kind of conversion battery models at Google's RechargeIT initiative. Moreover, the additional battery pack costs US$10,000–US$11,000.[158][159]

Operating costs

A study published in 2014 by researchers from Lamar University, Iowa State University and Oak Ridge National Laboratory compared the operating costs of PHEVs of various electric ranges (10, 20, 30, and 40 miles) with conventional gasoline vehicles and non-plugin hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) for different payback periods, considering different charging infrastructure deployment levels and gasoline prices. The study concluded that:[160]

  • PHEVs save around 60% or 40% in energy costs, compared with conventional gasoline vehicles and HEVs, respectively. For drivers with significant daily vehicle miles traveled (DVMT), however, hybrid vehicles may be even a better choice than plug-in hybrids with a range of 40 mi (64 km), particularly when there is a lack of public charging infrastructure.
  • The incremental battery cost of large-battery plug-in hybrids is difficult to justify based on the incremental savings of PHEVs' operating costs unless a subsidy is offered for large-battery PHEVs.
  • When the price of gasoline increases from US$4 per gallon to US$5 per gallon, the number of drivers who benefit from a larger battery increases significantly. If the gas price is US$3, a plug-in hybrid with a range of 10 mi (16 km) is the least costly option even if the battery cost is $200/kWh.
  • Although
    Level-2 chargers
    .

Cost of batteries

Main article: Electric vehicle battery

Disadvantages of PHEVs include the additional cost, weight and size of a larger

kW·h of usable energy, and considering that a PHEV with 10 km (6.2 mi) of electric range requires about 2.0 kW·h and a PHEV with 40 km (25 mi) of electric range about 8 kW·h, the estimated manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV with 10 km (6.2 mi) of electric range is around US$3,000 and it goes up to US$14,000 for a PHEV with 40 km (25 mi) of electric range.[161][162] According to the same study, even though costs are expected to decline by 35% by 2020, market penetration is expected to be slow and therefore PHEVs are not expected to significantly impact oil consumption or carbon emissions before 2030, unless a fundamental breakthrough in battery technologies occurs.[161][162][163]

Cost comparison between a PHEV-10 and a PHEV-40[161][163]
(prices for 2010)
Plug-in
type by
EV range		 Similar
production
model		 Type of
drivetrain		 Manufacturer
additional cost
compared to conventional
non-hybrid mid-size		 Estimated cost
of battery pack		 Cost of
electric system
upgrade at home		 Expected
gasoline
savings
compared
to a HEV		 Annual
gasoline
savings
compared
to a HEV(2)
PHEV-10
16 km
 Prius Plug-in(1)
Parallel
US$6,300
US$3,300
More than US$1,000
20%
260 L (70 US gal; 58 imp gal)
PHEV-40
64 km
Chevy Volt
Series
US$18,100
US$14,000
More than US$1,000
55%
760 L (200 US gal; 170 imp gal)
Notes: (1) Considers the HEV technology used in the Toyota Prius with a larger battery pack. The Prius Plug-in estimated all-electric range is 23 km (14.5 miles)[164]
(2) Assuming 24,000 km (15,000 miles) per year.

According to the 2010 NRC study, although a mile driven on electricity is cheaper than one driven on gasoline, lifetime fuel savings are not enough to offset plug-ins' high upfront costs, and it will take decades before the break-even point is achieved.[163] Furthermore, hundreds of billions of dollars in government subsidies and incentives are likely to be required to achieve rapid plug-in market penetration in the U.S.[162][163]

A 2013 study by the

U.S. Department of Energy has set cost targets for its sponsored battery research of US$300 per kilowatt hour in 2015 and US$125 per kilowatt hour by 2022. Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[165]

A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center, Harvard University, found that the gasoline costs savings of PHEVs over the vehicles' lifetimes do not offset their higher purchase prices. This finding was estimated comparing their lifetime net present value at 2010 purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market, and assuming no government subidies.[166][167] According to the study estimates, a PHEV with 40 km (25 mi) of electric range is US$5,377 more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine, while a battery electric vehicle (BEV) is US$4,819 more expensive. The study also examined how this balance will change over the next 10 to 20 years, assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase. Under the future scenarios considered, the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars (US$1,155 to US$7,181 cheaper), while PHEVs, will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios, and only less expensive than conventional cars in a scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices. BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel, while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline-powered engines.[166]

Emissions shifted to electric plants

Increased

clean coal technologies could create power plants that supply grid power from coal without emitting significant amounts of such pollutants, the higher cost of the application of these technologies may increase the price of coal-generated electricity. The net effect on pollution is dependent on the fuel source of the electrical grid (fossil or renewable, for example) and the pollution profile of the power plants themselves. Identifying, regulating and upgrading single point pollution source such as a power plant—or replacing a plant altogether—may also be more practical. From a human health perspective, shifting pollution away from large urban areas may be considered a significant advantage.[170]

According to a 2009 study by The National Academy of Science, "Electric vehicles and grid-dependent (plug-in) hybrid vehicles showed somewhat higher nonclimate damages than many other technologies."[171] Efficiency of plug-in hybrids is also impacted by the overall efficiency of electric power transmission. Transmission and distribution losses in the USA were estimated at 7.2% in 1995[172] and 6.5% in 2007.[173] By life cycle analysis of air pollution emissions, natural gas vehicles are currently the lowest emitter[citation needed].

Tiered rate structure for electric bills

The additional electrical consumption to recharge the plug-in vehicles could push many households in areas that do not have off-peak tariffs into the higher priced tier and negate financial benefits.[174] Customers under such tariffs could see significant savings by being careful about when the vehicle was charged, for example, by using a timer to restrict charging to off-peak hours. Thus, an accurate comparison of the benefit requires each household to evaluate its current electrical usage tier and tariffs weighed against the cost of gasoline and the actual observed operational cost of electric mode vehicle operation.

Greenhouse gas emissions

See also: Greenhouse gas emissions in plug-in electric vehicles

The effect of PHEVs on greenhouse emissions is complex. Plug-in hybrid vehicles operating on

life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from zero-emission sources such as renewable (e.g. wind power, solar energy or hydroelectricity) or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.[175][176] On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles.[175] In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle when operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy.[176]

Life cycle energy and emissions assessments

Argonne

In 2009, researchers at

well-to-wheels (WTW) analysis of energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles for several scenarios, considering different on-board fuels and different sources of electricity generation for recharging the vehicle batteries. Three US regions were selected for the analysis, California, New York, and Illinois, as these regions include major metropolitan areas with significant variations in their energy generation mixes. The full cycle analysis results were also reported for the US generation mix and renewable electricity to examine cases of average and clean mixes, respectively[177] This 2009 study showed a wide spread of petroleum use and GHG emissions among the different fuel production technologies and grid generation mixes. The following table summarizes the main results:[177]

PHEV
well-to-wheels Petroleum energy use and greenhouse gas emissions
for an all-electric range between 10 and 40 miles (16 and 64 km) with different on-board fuels.(1)
(as a % relative to an internal combustion engine
vehicle that uses fossil fuel gasoline)
Analysis
Ultra-low sulfur diesel
switchgrass
 Fuel cell
hydrogen
Petroleum energy use reduction
40–60%
70–90%
more than 90%
GHG emissions reduction(2)
30–60%
40–80%
10–100%
Source: Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory (2009). See Table 1.[177] Notes: (1) Simulations for year 2020
with PHEV model year 2015. (2) No direct or indirect land use changes included in the WTW analysis for bio-mass fuel feedstocks.[178][179]

The Argonne study found that PHEVs offered reductions in petroleum energy use as compared with regular hybrid electric vehicles. More petroleum energy savings and also more GHG emissions reductions were realized as the all-electric range increased, except when electricity used to recharge was dominated by coal or oil-fired power generation. As expected, electricity from renewable sources realized the largest reductions in petroleum energy use and GHG emissions for all PHEVs as the all-electric range increased. The study also concluded that plug-in vehicles that employ biomass-based fuels (biomass-E85 and -hydrogen) may not realize GHG emissions benefits over regular hybrids if power generation is dominated by fossil sources.[177]

Oak Ridge

A 2008 study by researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory analyzed oil use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of plug-in hybrids relative to hybrid electric vehicles under several scenarios for years 2020 and 2030.[180] The study considered the mix of power sources for 13 U.S. regions that would be used during recharging of vehicles, generally a combination of coal, natural gas and nuclear energy, and to a lesser extent renewable energy.[180][181] A 2010 study conducted at Argonne National Laboratory reached similar findings, concluding that PHEVs will reduce oil consumption but could produce very different greenhouse gas emissions for each region depending on the energy mix used to generate the electricity to recharge the plug-in hybrids.[182][183]

Environmental Protection Agency

In October 2014, the

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency published the 2014 edition of its annual report Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends. For the first time, the report presents an analysis of the impact of alternative fuel vehicles, with emphasis in plug-in electric vehicles because as their market share is approaching 1%, PEVs began to have a measurable impact on the U.S. overall new vehicle fuel economy and CO2 emissions.[184][185]

EPA's report included the analysis of 12 all-electric passengers cars and 10 plug-in hybrids available in the market as

tailpipe emissions produced by these vehicles in real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5-cycle label methodology, using a weighted 55% city/45% highway driving. The results are shown in the following table.[184]

In addition, the EPA accounted for the upstream CO2 emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity required to charge the PHEVs. Since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region, the EPA considered three scenarios/ranges with the low end of the range corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor, the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor, and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rockies. The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g CO2/kW-hr in California to 986 g CO2/kW-hr in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 g CO2/kW-hr.[184] The following table shows the tailpipe emissions and the combined tailpipe and upstream emissions for each of the 10 MY 2014 PHEVs available in the U.S. market.

Comparison of tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions(1) estimated by EPA
for the MY 2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market as of September 2014[184]
Vehicle EPA rating
combined
EV/hybrid
(mpg-e)		 Utility
factor(2)
(share EV
miles)		 Tailpipe CO2
(g/mi)		 Tailpipe + Total Upstream CO2
Low
(g/mi)		 Avg
(g/mi)		 High
(g/mi)
BMW i3 REx
(3)		 88 0.83 40 134 207 288
Chevrolet Volt 62 0.66 81 180 249 326
Cadillac ELR 54 0.65 91 206 286 377
Ford C-Max Energi
 51 0.45 129 219 269 326
Ford Fusion Energi
 51 0.45 129 219 269 326
Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid
 57 0.33 130 196 225 257
Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid 58 0.29 133 195 221 249
BMW i8 37 0.37 198 303 351 404
Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid
 31 0.39 206 328 389 457
McLaren P1 17 0.43 463 617 650 687
Average gasoline car 24.2 0 367 400 400 400
Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid[184][186]

National Bureau of Economic Research

Most emission analysis use average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day. The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day.

Western U.S., and within regions, rates for some hours of the day are more than twice those for others.[188] Applying the results of the marginal analysis to plug-in electric vehicles, the NBER researchers found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day. In some regions, such as the Western U.S. and Texas, CO2 emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car. In other regions, such as the Upper Midwest, charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road. The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions. This occurs because coal-fired units, which have higher emission rates, are most commonly used to meet base-level and off-peak electricity demand; while natural gas units, which have relatively low emissions rates, are often brought online to meet peak demand. This pattern of fuel shifting explains why emission rates tend to be higher at night and lower during periods of peak demand in the morning and evening.[188]

Production and sales

Production models

The Chevrolet Volt was the world's top selling plug-in hybrid until September 2018.[6]

Since 2008, plug-in hybrids have been commercially available from both specialty manufacturers and from mainstream producers of internal combustion engine vehicles. The

mass-production plug-in hybrid by a major carmaker.[10]

Sales and main markets

There were 1.2 million plug-in hybrid cars on the world roads at the end of 2017.

plug-in electric passenger cars.[190][189] As of December 2017, the United States ranked as the world's largest plug-in hybrid car market with a stock of 360,510 units, followed by China with 276,580 vehicles, Japan with 100,860 units, the Netherlands with 98,220, and the UK with 88,660.[189]

Global sales of plug-in hybrids grew from over 300 units in 2010 to almost 9,000 in 2011, jumped to over 60,000 in 2012, and reached almost 222,000 in 2015.[94] As of December 2015, the United States was the world's largest plug-in hybrid car market with a stock of 193,770 units.[94] About 279,000 light-duty plug-in hybrids were sold in 2016,[191] raising the global stock to almost 800,000 highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars at the end of 2016.[192][193] A total of 398,210 plug-in hybrid cars were sold in 2017, with China as the top selling country with 111,000 units, and the global stock of plug-in hybrids passed the one million unit milestone by the end of 2017.[189]

Evolution of the ratio between global sales of BEVs and PHEVs between 2011 and 2023[190][194][195][196]

Global sales of plug-in electric vehicles have been shifting for several years towards fully electric battery cars. The global ratio between all-electrics (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) went from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, to 66:34 in 2017, and rose to 69:31 in 2018.[190][194] In 2023, the ratio was 70:30, an increase for plug-in hybrids from the previous 73:27 in 2022.[197]

China's contribution towards global plug-in hybrids share ranged from 30% to 50% in 2017–2018, and fell to 25% in 2020. In 2021, China's share of global plug-in hybrids was 32.3%, rising to 55.5% in 2022, and 69.3% in 2023. From January to August 2024, the share rose to 775%, of which the third quarter reached 82.8%.[198] Meanwhile, Europe's plug-in hybrid share rose from 28% in 2018 to 65% in 2020, and then fell to 15% in 2024.[199]

Countries and regions by contribution of global plug-in hybrid sales[199]
Region 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 (Q1–Q3)
 China 41.9% 24.6% 32.3% 55.5% 68.9% 76.6%
Europe  Germany 9.2% 25.6% 18.0% 13.2% 4.4% 3.2%
 UK 5.9% 6.9% 7.1% 3.8% 3.5% 2.8%
 France 3.9% 9.0% 8.0% 4.7% 4.1% 2.4%
 Sweden 5.5% 7.1% 4.3% 2.5% 1.5% 1.1%
 Italy 1.2% 2.6% 5.2% 3.4% 1.7% 1.0%
 Norway 3.9% 3.3% 2.1% 0.6% 0.3% 0.1%
Other Europe 7.3% 10.7% 11.5% 6.9% 6.4% 4.8%
Europe total 36.9% 65.5% 56.1% 35.1% 21.9% 15.4%
North America  United States 16.9% 7.5% 9.2% 6.9% 7.0% 5.8%
Other North America 0.6% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
North America total 17.6% 7.6% 9.2% 6.9% 7.1% 5.8%
Asia (except China)  Japan 3.0% 1.3% 1.3% 1.4% 1.3% 1.3%
 South Korea 0.6% 1.0% 1.0% 0.4% 0.2% 0.1%
Other Asia 0.0% 0.1% 0.1% 0.6% 0.4% 0.2%
Asia total 3.6% 2.4% 2.3% 2.4% 1.9% 1.6%
Southern Hemisphere 0.1% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.2% 0.4%

By manufacturer

Between 2014 and 2019, the global market share of plug-in hybrids were largely led by

Geely Holding
was the second largest plug-in hybrid vehicle manufacturer in the world in 2024, maintaining a 8.1% share.

Due to the rapid growth of the plug-in hybrid vehicle market in China, manufacturers from outside China experienced decline in global plug-in hybrid market share. Volkswagen Group's global plug-in hybrid share peaked at 16.4% in 2020 before declining steadily to 4.2% in 2024. BMW's share followed a similar pattern, dropping from 9.8% in 2021 to 2.2% in 2024. Stellantis reached its highest share of 8.1% in 2021 but fell to 4.3% in 2024. Toyota's share of plug-in hybrids decreased over time, from 9.9% in 2019 to 2.4% in 2024. Hyundai's share fell from 6.4% in 2019 to 1.7% in 2024. General Motors share of plug-in hybrids remained low, peaking at 1.4% in 2019 and decreasing to 0.4% in 2024.[199]

Manufacturers by global plug-in hybrid market share[199]
Manufacturer 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 (Q1–Q3)
BYD Auto 14.6% 6.0% 15.5% 35.5% 36.2% 36.7%
Geely Holding
 11.6% 11.3% 9.3% 7.6% 7.3% 8.1%
Li Auto 0.2% 3.8% 5.1% 5.0% 9.4% 7.7%
Changan Automobile 0.0% 0.0% 1.6% 5.3% 5.0% 5.2%
Great Wall Motor 0.1% 0.1% 1.0% 3.9% 4.0% 3.9%
Stellantis 1.1% 6.2% 8.1% 7.4% 6.4% 4.3%
Volkswagen Group 4.5% 16.4% 14.7% 7.0% 5.6% 4.2%
Chery 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 1.4% 2.7% 2.9%
SAIC Motor 11.6% 6.3% 5.0% 3.5% 2.2% 2.8%
Mercedes-Benz Group 5.2% 13.6% 8.5% 4.8% 3.0% 2.4%
Toyota 9.9% 4.2% 5.4% 2.4% 2.3% 2.4%
BMW 11.9% 12.4% 9.8% 6.2% 3.8% 2.2%
Dongfeng Motor Group 0.4% 0.2% 0.9% 3.9% 1.2% 2.1%
Hyundai Motor Group 6.4% 6.4% 5.7% 4.4% 2.7% 1.7%
Leapmotor 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 1.2% 1.0%
GAC Group 0.6% 0.0% 0.1% 0.3% 0.8% 0.9%
General Motors 1.4% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.4%

By country

The Netherlands, Sweden, the UK, and the United States have the largest shares of plug-in hybrid sales as percentage of total plug-in electric passenger vehicle sales. The Netherlands has the world's largest share of plug-in hybrids among its plug-in electric passenger car stock, with 86,162 plug-in hybrids registered at the end of October 2016, out of 99,945 plug-in electric cars and vans, representing 86.2% of the country's stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles.[200]

Sweden ranks next with 16,978 plug-in hybrid cars sold between 2011 and August 2016, representing 71.7% of total plug-in electric passenger car sales registrations.[201][202][203][204][205] Plug-in hybrid registrations in the UK between up to August 2016 totaled 45,130 units representing 61.6% of total plug-in car registrations since 2011.[206] In the United States, plug-in hybrids represent 47.2% of the 506,450 plug-in electric cars sold between 2008 and August 2016.[207]

In November 2013 the Netherlands became the first country where a plug-in hybrid topped the monthly ranking of new car sales. During November sales were led by the

Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV with 2,736 units, capturing a market share of 6.8% of new passenger cars sold that month.[208] Again in December 2013 the Outlander PHEV ranked as the top selling new car in the country with 4,976 units, representing a 12.6% market share of new car sales.[209][210] These record sales allowed the Netherlands to become the second country, after Norway, where plug-in electric cars have topped the monthly ranking of new car sales.[208][211] As of December 2013, the Netherlands was the country with highest plug-in hybrid market concentration, with 1.45 vehicles registered per 1,000 people.[212]

The following table presents the top ranking countries according to its plug-in hybrid segment market share of total new car sales in 2013:

Top 10 countries by plug-in hybrid market share
of new car sales in 2013
Ranking Country PHEV
market
share(1)
(%) 		Ranking Country PHEV
market
share(1)
(%)
1  Netherlands 4.72% 6  Iceland 0.25%
2  Sweden 0.41% 7  Finland 0.13%
3  Japan 0.40% 8  United Kingdom 0.05%
4  Norway 0.34% 9  France 0.05%
5  United States 0.31% 10  Switzerland 0.05%
Note: (1) Market share of highway-capable plug-in hybrids as percentage of total new car sales in the country in 2013.

By model

According to

Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV was the world's all-time best selling plug-in hybrid.[4] Since inception, 290,000 units have been sold worldwide through September 2021.[5] Europe is the Outlander PHEV leading market with 126,617 units sold through January 2019,[213] followed by Japan 42,451 units through March 2018.[214] European sales are led by the UK with 50,000 units by April 2020,[215] followed by the Netherlands with 25,489 units, and Norway with 14,196, both through March 2018.[214]

Combined global sales of the Chevrolet Volt and its variants totaled about 186,000 units by the end of 2018,

Buick Velite 5s sold only in China (rebadged second generation Volt) through December 2018.[220] Volt sales are led by the United States with 152,144 units delivered through December 2018,[216] followed by Canada with 17,311 units through November 2018.[218][219] Until September 2018, the Chevrolet Volt was the world's top selling plug-in hybrid.[6]

Ranking third is the

Toyota Prius Prime) with about 174,600 units sold worldwide of both generations through December 2018.[190][222] The United States is the leading market with over 93,000 units delivered through December 2018.[216] Japan ranks next with about 61,200 units through December 2018,[223][222] followed by Europe with almost 14,800 units through June 2018.[222][224]

The following table presents plug-in hybrid models with cumulative global sales of around or more than 100,000 units since the introduction of the first modern production plug-in hybrid car, the BYD F3DM, in 2008 up until December 2020:

Top selling highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars
between 2008 and 2020
Model Market
launch		 Global sales Cumulative
sales through		 Sources
Since inception 2018
Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV
 Jan 2013 290,000 - Sep 2021 [5]
Chevrolet Volt(1) Dec 2010 ~186,000 25,108 Dec 2018 [216][217][218][220]
Toyota Prius PHV
 Jan 2012 174,586 45,686 Dec 2018 [190][222]
BYD Qin(2) Dec 2013 136,818 47,425 Dec 2018 [225][226][227]
BYD Tang(2) Jun 2015 101,518 37,146 Dec 2018 [226][227][228][229]
Notes: (1) In addition to the Volt model sold in North America, combined sales of the
Buick Velite 5 sold only in China (rebadged second generation Volt).[220]

(2) Sales in China only. BYD Qin total does not include sales of the all-electric variant (Qin EV300).

Government support and public deployment

Subsidies and economic incentives

Main article: Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles

Several countries have established

European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles, which includes all Western European countries plus the Czech Republic and Romania. Also 17 countries levy carbon dioxide related taxes on passenger cars as a disincentive. The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and some alternative fuel vehicles.[236][237]

Other government support

United States
Hymotion
technology

Incentives for the development of PHEVs are included in the

Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, signed into law on October 3, 2008, grants a tax credits for the purchase of PHEVs. President Barack Obama's New Energy for America calls for deployment of 1 million plug-in hybrid vehicles by 2015,[239] and on March 19, 2009, he announced programs directing $2.4 billion to electric vehicle development.[240]

The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009[241] modifies the tax credits, including a new one for plug-in electric drive conversion kits and for 2 or 3 wheel vehicles.[242] The ultimate total included in the Act that is going to PHEVs is over $6 billion.[243]

In March 2009, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, the

transportation electrification demonstration and deployment projects. This announcement will also help meet the President Barack Obama's goal of putting one million plug-in hybrid vehicles on the road by 2015.[244]

Chevy Volt during his tour of the General Motors Auto Plant in Hamtramck, Michigan

Public deployments also include:

European Union

DG TREN will support a large European "electromobility" project on electric vehicles and related infrastructure with a total budget of around €50 million as part of the Green Car Initiative.[252]

Supportive organizations

Organizations that support plug-in hybrids include the World Wide Fund for Nature,[253] National Wildlife Federation,[254] and CalCars.[255]

Other supportive organizations are

Plug-in Hybrid Electric School Bus Project.[257]

FPL and Duke Energy has said that by 2020 all new purchases of fleet vehicles will be plug-in hybrid or all-electric.[258]

See also

References

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Further reading

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