Glorious First of June
Glorious First of June | |||||||
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Part of the Lord Howe's action, or the Glorious First of June, Philip James de Loutherbourg | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Great Britain | France | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Richard Howe | Villaret-Joyeuse | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
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Casualties and losses | |||||||
1,200 killed and wounded |
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The Glorious First of June (1 June 1794), also known as the Fourth Battle of Ushant, (known in France as the Bataille du 13 prairial an 2 or Combat de Prairial)
The action was the culmination of a
During the battle, Howe defied naval convention by ordering his fleet to turn towards the French and for each of his vessels to
The Glorious First of June demonstrated a number of the major problems inherent in the French and British navies at the start of the Revolutionary Wars. Both admirals were faced with disobedience from their captains, along with ill-discipline and poor training among their shorthanded crews, and they failed to control their fleets effectively during the height of the combat.
Background
Since early 1792 France had been at war with four of its neighbours on two fronts, battling the
Protected from immediate invasion by the
The situation in Europe remained volatile into 1794. Off northern France, the French Atlantic Fleet had mutinied due to errors in provisions and pay. In consequence, the French Navy officer corps suffered greatly from the effects of the Reign of Terror, with many experienced sailors being executed, imprisoned or dismissed from the service for perceived disloyalty.[9] The shortage of provisions was more than a navy problem though; France itself was starving because the social upheavals of the previous year had combined with a harsh winter to ruin the harvest.[10] By this time at war with all her neighbours, France had nowhere to turn for overland imports of fresh provisions. Eventually a solution to the food crisis was agreed by the National Convention: food produced in France's overseas colonies would be concentrated on board a fleet of merchant ships gathered in Chesapeake Bay, and augmented with food and goods purchased from the United States.[11] During April and May 1794, the merchantmen would convoy the supplies across the Atlantic to Brest, protected by elements of the French Atlantic Fleet.[12]
Fleets
The navies of Britain and France in 1794 were at very different stages of development. Although the British fleet was numerically superior, the French ships were larger (even if more lightly built), and carried a heavier weight of shot.
Since the Nootka Crisis of 1790, the Royal Navy had been at sea in a state of readiness for over three years.[15] The Navy's dockyards under First Lord of the Admiralty Charles Middleton were all fully fitted and prepared for conflict. This was quite unlike the disasters of the American Revolutionary War ten years earlier, when an ill-prepared Royal Navy had taken too long to reach full effectiveness and was consequently unable to support the North American campaign, which ended in defeat at the Siege of Yorktown due to lack of supplies.[16] With British dockyards now readily turning out cannon, shot, sails, provisions and other essential equipment, the only remaining problem was that of manning the several hundred ships on the Navy list.[17]
Unfortunately for the British, gathering sufficient manpower was difficult and never satisfactorily accomplished throughout the entire war. The shortage of seamen was such that
Despite these difficulties, the Channel Fleet was possessed of one of the best naval commanders of the age; its commander-in-chief, Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe, had learned his trade under Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke and fought at the Battle of Quiberon Bay in 1759.[20] In the spring of 1794, with the French convoy's arrival in European waters imminent, Howe had dispersed his fleet in three groups. George Montagu, in HMS Hector, was sent with six ships of the line and two frigates to guard British convoys to the East Indies, West Indies and Newfoundland as far as Cape Finisterre. Peter Rainier, in HMS Suffolk and commanding six other ships, was to escort the convoys for the rest of their passage. The third force consisted of 26 ships of the line, with several supporting vessels, under Howe's direct command. They were to patrol the Bay of Biscay for the arriving French.[21]
In contrast to their British counterparts, the French Navy was in a state of confusion. Although the quality of the fleet's ships was high, the fleet hierarchy was riven by the same crises that had torn through France since the Revolution five years earlier.[17] Consequently, the high standard of ships and ordnance was not matched by that of the available crews, which were largely untrained and inexperienced. With the Terror resulting in the death or dismissal of many senior French sailors and officers, political appointees and conscripts—many of whom had never been to sea at all, let alone in a fighting vessel—filled the Atlantic fleet.[22]
The manpower problem was compounded by the supply crisis which was affecting the entire nation, with the fleet going unpaid and largely unfed for months at times.[23] In August 1793, these problems came to a head in the fleet off Brest, when a lack of provisions resulted in a mutiny among the regular sailors. The crews overruled their officers and brought their ships into harbour in search of food, leaving the French coast undefended.[24] The National Convention responded instantly by executing a swathe of senior officers and ship's non-commissioned officers. Hundreds more officers and sailors were imprisoned, banished or dismissed from naval service. The effect of this purge was devastating, seriously degrading the fighting ability of the fleet by removing at a stroke many of its most capable personnel.[9] In their places were promoted junior officers, merchant captains and even civilians who expressed sufficient revolutionary zeal, although few of them knew how to fight or control a battle fleet at sea.[25][26]
The newly appointed commander of this troubled fleet was
The French Atlantic fleet was even more dispersed than the British in the spring of 1794: Rear-Admiral
Convoy
By early spring of 1794, the situation in France was dire. With famine looming after the failure of the harvest and the blockade of French ports and trade, the French government was forced to look overseas for sustenance.[16] Turning to France's colonies in the Americas, and the agricultural bounty of the United States, the National Convention gave orders for the formation of a large convoy of sailing vessels to gather at Hampton Roads in the Chesapeake Bay, where Admiral Vanstabel would wait for them. According to contemporary historian William James this conglomeration of ships was said to be over 350 strong, although he disputes this figure, citing the number as 117 (in addition to the French warships).[14]
The convoy had also been augmented by the United States government, in both cargo and shipping, as repayment for French financial, moral and military support during the
May 1794
The French convoy, escorted by Vanstabel, departed America from Virginia on 2 April, and Howe sailed from Portsmouth on 2 May, taking his entire fleet to both escort British convoys to the Western Approaches and intercept the French.[12] Checking that Villaret was still in Brest, Howe spent two weeks searching the Bay of Biscay for the grain convoy, returning to Brest on 18 May to discover that Villaret had sailed the previous day.[d] Returning to sea in search of his opponent, Howe pursued Villaret deep into the Atlantic. Also at sea during this period were the squadrons of Nielly (French) and Montagu (British), both of whom had met with some success; Nielly had captured a number of British merchant ships and Montagu had taken several back. Nielly was the first to encounter the grain convoy, deep in the Atlantic in the second week of May. He took it under escort as it moved closer to Europe, while Montagu was searching fruitlessly to the south.[31]
Despite Howe's pursuit, the main French sortie found initial success, running into a Dutch convoy and taking 20 ships from it on Villaret's first day at sea. For the next week Howe continued to follow the French, seizing and burning a trail of French-held Dutch ships and enemy corvettes.
Taking the bait, the following day Howe attacked again, but his attempt to split the French fleet in half was unsuccessful when his lead ship, HMS Caesar, failed to follow orders.[36] Much damage was done to both fleets but the action was inconclusive, and the two forces again separated without having settled the issue. Howe had however gained an important advantage during the engagement by seizing the weather gage, enabling him to further attack Villaret at a time of his choosing.[e] Three French ships were sent back to port with damage, but these losses were offset by reinforcements gained the following day with the arrival of Nielly's detached squadron.[38] Battle was postponed during the next two days because of thick fog, but when the haze lifted on 1 June 1794, the battle lines were only 6 miles (10 km) apart and Howe was prepared to force a decisive action.[38]
First of June
Although Howe was in a favourable position, Villaret had not been idle during the night. He had attempted, with near success, to distance his ships from the British fleet; when dawn broke at 05:00 he was within a few hours of gaining enough wind to escape over the horizon.
It was normal in fleet actions of the 18th century for the two lines of battle to pass one another sedately, exchanging fire at long ranges and then
British break the line
Within minutes of issuing the signal and turning his flagship HMS Queen Charlotte, Howe's plan began to falter. Many of the British captains had either misunderstood or ignored the signal and were hanging back in the original line.[44] Other ships were still struggling with damage from Howe's earlier engagements and could not get into action fast enough. The result was a ragged formation tipped by Queen Charlotte that headed unevenly for Villaret's fleet. The French responded by firing on the British ships as they approached, but the lack of training and coordination in the French fleet was obvious; many ships which did obey Howe's order and attacked the French directly arrived in action without significant damage.[45]
Van squadron
Although Queen Charlotte pressed on all sail, she was not the first through the enemy line. That distinction belonged to a ship of the
In front of Marlborough the rest of the van had mixed success.
More disturbing to Lord Howe were the actions of HMS Russell and HMS Caesar. Russell's captain John Willett Payne was criticised at the time for failing to get to grips with the enemy more closely and allowing her opponent Téméraire to badly damage her rigging in the early stages, although later commentators blamed damage received on 29 May for her poor start to the action.[50] There were no such excuses, however, for Captain Anthony Molloy of Caesar, who totally failed in his duty to engage the enemy. Molloy completely ignored Howe's signal and continued ahead as if the British battleline was following him rather than engaging the French fleet directly.[51] Caesar did participate in a desultory exchange of fire with the leading French ship Trajan but her fire had little effect, while Trajan inflicted much damage to Caesar's rigging and was subsequently able to attack Bellerophon as well, roaming unchecked through the melee developing at the head of the line.[45]
Centre
The centre of the two fleets was divided by two separate squadrons of the British line: the forward division under admirals
Howe and Queen Charlotte led the fleet by example, sailing directly at the French flagship
To the right of Queen Charlotte,
Behind this combat, other ships of the centre division struck the French line,
Rear
Of the British rear ships, only two made a determined effort to break the French line. Admiral Hood's flagship HMS Royal George pierced it between Républicain and Sans Pareil, engaging both closely, while HMS Glory came through the line behind Sans Pareil and threw herself into the melee as well. The rest of the British and French rearguard did not participate in this close combat; HMS Montagu fought a long range gunnery duel with Neptune which damaged neither ship severely,[59] although the British captain James Montagu was killed in the opening exchanges, command devolving to Lieutenant Ross Donnelly.[60] Next in line, HMS Ramillies ignored her opponent completely and sailed west, Captain Henry Harvey seeking Brunswick, his brother's ship, in the confused action around Queen Charlotte.[61]
Three other British ships failed to respond to the signal from Howe, including
Melee
Within an hour of their opening volleys the British and French lines were hopelessly confused, with three separate engagements being fought within sight of one another. In the van, Caesar had finally attempted to join the fight, only to have a vital spar shot away by Trajan which caused her to slip down the two embattled fleets without contributing significantly to the battle.[63] Bellerophon and Leviathan were in the thick of the action, the outnumbered Bellerophon taking serious damage to her rigging. This left her unable to manoeuvre and in danger from her opponents, of which Eole also suffered severely. Captain William Johnstone Hope sought to extract his ship from her perilous position and called up support; the frigate HMS Latona under Captain Edward Thornbrough arrived to provide assistance.[45] Thornbrough brought his small ship between the ships of the French battleline and opened fire on Eole, helping to drive off three ships of the line and then towing Bellerophon to safety. Leviathan, under Lord Hugh Seymour, had been more successful than Bellerophon, her gunnery dismasting America despite receiving fire from Eole and Trajan in passing. Leviathan only left America after a two-hour duel, sailing at 11:50 to join Queen Charlotte in the centre.[50]
Russell had not broken the French line and her opponent Témeraire got the better of her, knocking away a topmast and escaping to windward with Trajan and Eole. Russell then fired on several passing French ships before joining Leviathan in attacking the centre of the French line. Russell's boats also took the surrender of America, her crew boarding the vessel to make her a prize (although later replaced by men from Royal Sovereign).[64] Royal Sovereign lost Admiral Graves to a serious wound and lost her opponent as well, as Terrible fell out of the line to windward and joined a growing collection of French ships forming a new line on the far side of the action. Villaret was leading this line in his flagship Montagne, which had escaped from Queen Charlotte, and it was Montagne which Royal Sovereign engaged next, pursuing her close to the new French line accompanied by Valiant, and beginning a long-range action.[49]
Behind Royal Sovereign was Marlborough, inextricably tangled with Impétueux. Badly damaged and on the verge of surrender, Impétueux was briefly reprieved when Mucius appeared through the smoke and collided with both ships.[65] The three entangled ships continued exchanging fire for some time, all suffering heavy casualties with Marlborough and Impétueux losing all three of their masts. This combat continued for several hours. Captain Berkeley of Marlborough had to retire below with serious wounds, and command fell to Lieutenant John Monkton, who signalled for help from the frigates in reserve.[47] Robert Stopford responded in HMS Aquilon, which had the assignment of repeating signals, and towed Marlborough out of the line as Mucius freed herself and made for the regrouped French fleet to the north. Impétueux was in too damaged a state to move at all, and was soon seized by sailors from HMS Russell.[64]
Dismasted, Defence was unable to hold any of her various opponents to a protracted duel, and by 13:00 was threatened by the damaged Républicain moving from the east. Although Républicain later hauled off to join Villaret to the north, Gambier requested support for his ship from the fleet's frigates and was aided by HMS Phaeton under Captain William Bentinck. As Impétueux passed she fired on Phaeton, to which Bentinck responded with several broadsides of his own.[47] Invincible, the only ship of the forward division of the British centre to engage the enemy closely, became embroiled in the confusion surrounding Queen Charlotte. Invincible's guns drove Juste onto the broadside of Queen Charlotte, where she was forced to surrender to Lieutenant Henry Blackwood in a boat from Invincible.[52] Among the other ships of the division there were only minor casualties, although HMS Impregnable lost several yards and was only brought back into line by the quick reactions of two junior officers, Lieutenant Robert Otway and Midshipman Charles Dashwood.[66]
The conflict between Queen Charlotte and Montagne was oddly one-sided, the French flagship failing to make use of her lower-deck guns and consequently suffering extensive damage and casualties.
To the east, Orion and Queen forced the surrender of both Northumberland and Jemmappes, although Queen was unable to secure Jemmappes and she had to be abandoned later. Queen especially was badly damaged and unable to make the British lines again, wallowing between the newly reformed French fleet and the British battleline along with several other shattered ships.[58][g] Royal George and Glory had between them disabled Scipion and Sans Pareil in a bitter exchange, but were also too badly damaged themselves to take possession. All four ships were among those left drifting in the gap between the fleets.[62]
French recovery
Villaret in Montagne, having successfully broken contact with the British flagship and slipped away to the north, managed to gather 11 ships of the line around him and formed them up in a reconstituted battle squadron.
In fact, the British fleet was unable to pursue Villaret, having only 11 ships still capable of battle to the French 12, and having numerous dismasted ships and prizes to protect. Retiring and regrouping, the British crews set about making hasty repairs and securing their prizes; seven in total, including the badly damaged Vengeur du Peuple. Vengeur had been holed by cannon firing from Brunswick directly through the ship's bottom, and after her surrender no British ship had managed to get men aboard. This left Vengeur's few remaining unwounded crew to attempt to salvage what they could—a task made harder when some of her sailors broke into the spirit room and became drunk.[69] Ultimately the ship's pumps became unmanageable, and Vengeur began to sink. Only the timely arrival of boats from the undamaged Alfred and HMS Culloden, as well as the services of the cutter HMS Rattler, saved any of the Vengeur's crew from drowning, these ships taking off nearly 500 sailors between them.[74] Lieutenant John Winne of Rattler was especially commended for this hazardous work.[69] By 18:15, Vengeur was clearly beyond salvage and only the very worst of the wounded, the dead, and the drunk remained aboard. Several sailors are said to have waved the tricolor from the bow of the ship and cried "Vive la Nation, vive la République!"[j]
Having escaped to the east, Villaret made what sail his battered fleet could muster to return to France, and dispatched his frigates in search of the convoy. Villaret was also hoping for reinforcements; eight ships of the line, commanded by Admiral Pierre-François Cornic, were patrolling near the Ushant headland. Behind him to the west, the British took the whole night to secure their ships and prizes, not setting out to return to Britain until 05:00 on 2 June.[73]
Casualties in the battle are notoriously hard to calculate exactly.[k] With only one exception (Scipion), records made by the French captains of their losses at the time are incomplete. The only immediately available casualty counts are the sketchy reports of Saint-André and the records made by British officers aboard the captured ships, neither of which can be treated as completely reliable.[88] Most sources accept that French casualties in the campaign numbered approximately 7,000, including around 3,000 captured, but these figures are vague and frequently do not agree with each other on details.[l] British casualties are easier to confirm but here, too, there are some discrepancies; overall British casualties are generally given as around 1,200.[k]
Convoy arrives
With a large portion of his fleet no longer battleworthy, Howe was unable to resume his search for the French convoy in the Bay of Biscay. The
Howe benefited from Montagu's withdrawal, as his own battered fleet passed close to the scene of this stand-off on 10 June, pushing north into the English Channel.[91] With Villaret and Cornic fortuitously pursuing Montagu to the south, Howe was free to pass Ushant without difficulty and arrived off Plymouth on 12 June, joined soon afterwards by Montagu. Villaret had anchored with Cornic in Bertheaume Bay the day before, but Saint-André refused to allow him to enter Brest until the republican attitudes of the town's population had been assessed.[91] On 12 June, the convoy from America finally arrived off France, having lost just one ship in passage during a storm.[91]
Aftermath
Both Britain and France claimed victory in the battle: Britain by virtue of capturing or sinking seven French ships without losing any of her own and remaining in control of the battle site; France because the vital convoy had passed through the Atlantic unharmed and arrived in France without significant loss.[11] The two fleets were showered by their respective nations with both praise and criticism—the latter particularly directed at those captains not felt to have contributed significantly to the fighting.[92]
France
In France the revolutionary principles of égalité precluded extensive awards, but Villaret was promoted to vice-admiral on 27 September 1794
Ultimately the revolutionary excesses of the period would prove disastrous for the French Navy. Poor leadership, conflicting and arbitrary orders and the decimation of the experienced seamen in the ranks promoted a negative attitude in the French officer corps.[96] The French battlefleet did not contest British dominance in Northern European waters again, and their raiding operations repeatedly ended in failure at the hands of more confident British squadrons and the unforgiving Atlantic weather. By 1805, when the last great French fleet to take to the sea was crushed at the Battle of Trafalgar, poor training and low investment in the Navy had reduced its efficiency to levels unthinkable 20 years earlier.[96]
Britain
In Britain, the fleet in
There was, however, a bitter consequence of the awards, rooted in Howe's official dispatch to the Admiralty concerning the battle, which according to some accounts was actually written by Curtis.
Bitterest of all was the whispering campaign directed at Anthony Molloy, captain of HMS Caesar. Molloy was accused of cowardice by fellow officers for his failure to follow Howe's orders on both 29 May and 1 June. Molloy's request for an official court-martial to clear his name failed, and although his personal courage was not called into question, his professional ability was.[99] Molloy was dismissed from his ship.[105]
Of the captured ships, several were purchased and enjoyed long careers in the Royal Navy, in particular the two 80-gun ships
Notes
- ^ Although some sources differ (Smith, p. 82 claims only 50 km from Ushant, which may be a typographical error), the accepted position of the battle is approximately 400 nautical miles (740 km) west of Ushant in the Eastern Atlantic. (Padfield, p. 13)
- French Revolutionary calendar. The name Third Battle of Ushant follows the nearest landmark tradition and also acknowledges the two previous Battles of Ushant during the American Revolutionary War.[citation needed]
- ^ HMS Childers was under the command of Lieutenant Robert Barlow, who later commanded the frigate HMS Pegasus at the Glorious First of June.[1]
- ^ It has been suggested by historian Peter Padfield that allowing Villaret to escape Brest was part of a deliberate strategy on Howe's part. If Howe could draw Villaret into the open ocean, he could rely on superior training and tactics to destroy the French fleet in battle. If successful, this would eliminate the threat from the French Atlantic Fleet for years to come.[30]
- ^ The weather gage was a vital advantage in sailing warfare because the ships required wind of the correct volume and direction to conduct offensive operations. When the wind was in the wrong direction, a captain could tack to compensate, but possessing the weather gage meant that a ship could use the wind to attack its opponent directly, without the need for complicated manoeuvre.[37]
- ^ Pocock had been an officer with the British Fleet at the Glorious First of June, serving aboard the repeating frigate HMS Pegasus.
- ^ Manderson served as a lieutenant aboard HMS Queen
- ^ Several of these ships had already signified surrender by lowering their flags, only to re-hoist them once out of danger. This was a severe breach of the customs of naval warfare at the time and provoked outrage in the British naval establishment. (Woodman, p. 36)
- ^ This depiction is somewhat fantastical, as the French ensign flown by Vengeur was in all likelihood the white flag with a canton of three equal columns of red, white, and blue, and not the tricolour which, even though it had been officially introduced, was flown only by the flagship Montagne due to a lack of appropriate fabric in Brest. Furthermore, Vengeur is seen listing on the wrong side.
- Bertrand Barrère[76]Lord Howe however debunks that report entirely, claiming that it never occurred,[77] a position followed by many British sources.[78] Some interesting light is thrown on this story by Thomas Carlyle, who originally included the legend in his history of the French Revolution. When Admiral John Griffiths—who, as a lieutenant on HMS Culloden at the time, had been an eyewitness to the sinking—publicly challenged Carlyle's tale, dismissing both Barrère's version of the tale and Carlyle's own poetic license, Carlyle set out to get to the bottom of the story, eventually unearthing the official report of Vengeur by Captain Renaudin. Carlyle concluded that Barrère had concocted a "cunningly devised fable", and changed his account of the sinking of Vengeur in subsequent editions.[79] William James provides an alternative theory when he suggests that any person who behaved in such a manner on the stricken ship was acting under the influence of alcohol.[80] In his Histoire de la Marine Française, Claude Farrère attributes the sinking to failure of the crew to close damaged lower gunports, claims that a good part of the crew evacuated the ship, and describes the patriotic cries as those of wounded men trapped on the sinking ship with no hope of rescue.[81]
- ^ a b French losses have been estimated by various commentators and historians with some variation: N. A. M. Rodger gives 4,200 casualties and 3,300 captured;[82] Digby Smith gives 4,270 casualties and 3,254 captured;[83] Padfield lists 3,500 casualties;[84] Gardiner 3,500 casualties and the same number captured.[85] Saint-André gave 3,000 killed and wounded in his official dispatch and James assesses total French killed, wounded, and captured as no fewer than 7,000.[86] British casualty returns are easier to establish due to surviving records although there are discrepancies here too. The official total was 287 killed and 811 wounded during the campaign, while the individual ship totals listed in James do not add up to his eventual total of 1,148, coming in slightly under this figure.[87] Most sources agree however that the total casualty figure is approximately 1,200.
- ^ As an example of this, the losses sustained aboard the sinking Vengeur have been variously reported as "very low besides the badly wounded", (James, p. 164) 150 survivors, (Gardiner, p. 33) and "over 600 drowned". (Tracy, p. 106)
- ^ The title Viscount Hood was already in use as the title of his cousin, Admiral Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood.
- ^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
References
- ^ Tracy, p. 3
- ^ Gardiner, Fleet Battle and Blockade, p. 9
- ^ a b Williams, p. 373
- ^ Padfield, p. 15
- ^ Mostert, p. 102
- ^ Tracy, p. 27
- ^ Williams, p. 387
- ^ Tracy, p. 53
- ^ a b James, p. 122
- ^ a b c Williams, p. 381
- ^ a b Tracy, p. 89
- ^ a b Mostert, p. 132
- ^ a b c Jane, p. 96
- ^ a b c James, p. 127
- ^ James, p. 48
- ^ a b Rodger, p. 429
- ^ a b c d Jane, p. 94
- ^ The Glorious First of June 1794, Worcestershire Regiment, retrieved 23 December 2007
- ^ The Glorious First of June 1794 Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment, retrieved 1 January 2008
- Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Roger Knight, retrieved 23 December 2007
- ^ James, p. 125
- ^ Gardiner, Fleet Battle and Blockade, p. 16
- ^ James, p. 58
- ^ James, p. 59
- ^ a b c James, p. 123
- ^ Padfield, p. 13
- ^ Mosert, p. 133
- ^ James, p. 124
- ^ Gardiner, Nelson Against Napoleon, p. 148
- ^ Padfield, p. 17
- ^ James, p. 128
- ^ Gardiner, Fleet Battle and Blockade, p. 27
- ^ James, p. 130
- ^ James, p. 132
- ^ Gardiner, Fleet Battle and Blockade, p. 28
- ^ James, p. 138
- ^ a b c d e Rodger, p. 430
- ^ a b Padfield, p. 16
- ^ James p. 147
- ^ a b James, p. 146
- ^ Jane, p. 95
- ^ Padfield, p. 18
- ^ Gardiner, Fleet Battle and Blockade, p. 31
- ^ Padfield, p. 22
- ^ a b c James, p. 155
- ^ Gardiner, Fleet Battle and Blockade, p. 32
- ^ a b c d James, p. 158
- ^ Padfield, p. 29
- ^ a b c d James, p. 157
- ^ a b James, p. 156
- ^ a b Padfield, p. 24
- ^ a b James, p. 159
- ^ a b Padfield, p. 32
- ^ a b c Padfield, p. 31
- ^ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, J. K. Laughton, retrieved 24 December 2007
- ^ James, p. 161
- ^ James, p. 165
- ^ a b c Tracy, p. 99, Biographical Memoir of Captain James Manderson
- ^ a b c James, p. 167
- Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, J. K. Laughton and Andrew Lambert, (subscription required), retrieved 10 May 2012
- ^ a b James, p. 163
- ^ a b James, p. 168
- ^ James, p. 154
- ^ a b Tracy, p. 98, Biographical Memoir of Rear-Admiral John Willett Payne
- ^ Padfield, p. 33
- J. K. Laughton, retrieved 2 January 2008
- ^ a b James, p. 149
- ^ a b Padfield, p. 37
- ^ a b c James, p. 164
- ^ Padfield, p. 38
- ^ James, p. 151
- ^ Gardiner, Fleet Battle and Blockade, p. 38
- ^ a b c James, p. 169
- ^ Gardiner, Fleet Battle and Blockade, p. 33
- ^ Williams 1907, p. 381.
- ^ Barère, Bertrand (1906) [1794]. "On the Heroism of Vengeur's Sailors". In Bryan, William Jennings (ed.). The world's famous orations. Vol. 7. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. p. 1906.
- ^ Tracy 1998, p. 95.
- ^ Jane 1997, p. 95.
- ^ "TC to Mary Rich". The Carlyle Letters Online. 10 December 1838. p. 236. Archived from the original on 13 July 2010. Retrieved 29 May 2008.
- ^ James 2002, p. 164.
- ^ Farrère 1956, p. 271.
- ^ Rodger 2004, p. 430.
- ^ Smith 1998, p. 83.
- ^ Padfield 2000, p. 39.
- ^ Gardiner, 2001; p.38
- ^ James 2002, p. 153.
- ^ James 2002, p. 152.
- ^ James, p. 153
- ^ a b James, p. 171
- ^ Williams, p. 382
- ^ a b c James, p. 172
- ^ James, p. 173
- ^ Levot, p.544
- ^ James, p. 174
- ^ James, p. 175
- ^ a b Padfield, p. 163
- ^ Tracy, p. 99, The Biographical memoir of Lord Howe
- ^ a b James, p. 179
- ^ a b Gardiner, Fleet Battle and Blockade, p. 39
- ^ James, p. 181
- ^ Tracy, p. 90
- Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, J. K. Laughton, retrieved 8 December 2007
- Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, C. H. H. Owen, retrieved 31 December 2007
- ^ "No. 20939". The London Gazette. 26 January 1849. pp. 236–245.
- ^ Brenton, The Naval History of Great Britain, p. 227
- ^ Gardiner, Fleet Battle and Blockade, p. 41
- ^ Gardiner, Fleet Battle and Blockade, p. 40
- ^ Wareham, p. 64
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- Wareham, Tom (2001). The Star Captains, Frigate Command in the Napoleonic Wars. Chatham Publishing. ISBN 1-86176-169-4.
- Warner, Oliver (1961). The Glorious First of June. B.T. Batsford.
- Williams, Henry Smith, ed. (1907). History of France, 1715–1815. The historians' history of the world. Vol. 12. London.
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Winfield, Rif (2008) [2005]. OCLC 216617748.
- OCLC 231895733.
- Campagnes, thriomphes, revers, désastres et guerres civiles des Français de 1792 à la paix de 1856, F. Ladimir et E. Moreau. Librairie Populaire des Villes et des Campagnes, 1856 Tome 5, pp. 17–27
External links
- Media related to Glorious First of June at Wikimedia Commons