Siege of Malta (1798–1800)

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Siege of Malta
Part of the naval operations and the Mediterranean campaign during the War of the First Coalition

Watercolour depicting French-occupied Valletta and Manoel Island as seen from Għargħar Battery, a rebel artillery position during the blockade
Date2 September 1798 – 4 September 1800 (2 years, 2 days)
Location
Mainly Valletta and the Three Cities, Malta
Conflict in Mdina-Rabat area
Result Anglo-Maltese victory
Territorial
changes		 Malta becomes a British protectorate
Belligerents
Maltese irregulars
 Great Britain
Portugal
Naples		 France
Commanders and leaders
Emmanuele Vitale
Francesco Caruana
Vincenzo Borg
Horatio Nelson
Alexander Ball
Domingos de Nisa [pt]		 Claude Vaubois  Surrendered
Jean Perrée †
Pierre-Charles Villeneuve Surrendered
Strength
Maltese – 10,000 ~
British – 16 ships[1]
Portuguese – 5 ships[2]		 6,000–7,000[1]
Casualties and losses
Maltese – 300[3]
British – light		 4,000 surrendered
2,000 – killed, wounded, sick or dead to disease
20,000 Maltese civilians dead to disease[3]

The siege of Malta, also known as the siege of Valletta or the French blockade (

Mediterranean island of Malta, between 1798 and 1800. Malta had been captured by a French expeditionary force during the Mediterranean campaign of 1798, and garrisoned with 3,000 soldiers under the command of Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois. After the British Royal Navy destroyed the French Mediterranean Fleet at the Battle of the Nile
on 1 August 1798, the British were able to initiate a blockade of Malta, assisted by an uprising among the native Maltese population against French rule. After its retreat to Valletta, the French garrison faced severe food shortages, exacerbated by the effectiveness of the British blockade. Although small quantities of supplies arrived in early 1799, there was no further traffic until early 1800, by which time starvation and disease were having a disastrous effect on the health, morale, and combat capability of the French troops.

In February 1800, a significant convoy under Contre-Admiral

Guillaume Tell set sail from Valletta to Toulon, laden with soldiers, but this too was intercepted and in a hard-fought battle
was forced to surrender to a larger British squadron. These defeats rendered the French position on Valletta untenable, and its surrender inevitable. Although Vaubois held out for another five months, he eventually surrendered on 4 September and Malta was taken by Britain.

Background

French invasion of Malta

Further information: French invasion of Malta and Mediterranean campaign of 1798
Capitulation of Malta to general Bonaparte

On 19 May 1798, a French fleet sailed from

Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim, who refused Bonaparte's demand that his entire convoy be allowed to enter Valletta and take on supplies, insisting that Malta's neutrality meant that only two ships could enter at a time.[7]

On receiving this reply, Bonaparte immediately ordered his fleet to bombard Valletta and on 11 June General

amphibious operation in which several thousand soldiers landed at seven strategic sites around the island. The French Knights deserted the order, and the remaining Knights failed to mount a meaningful resistance. Approximately 2,000 native Maltese militia resisted for 24 hours, retreating to Valletta once the city of Mdina fell to General Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois.[8] Although Valletta was strong enough to hold out against a lengthy siege, Bonaparte negotiated a surrender with Hompesch, who agreed to turn Malta and all of its resources over to the French in exchange for estates and pensions in France for himself and his knights.[9] Bonaparte then established a French garrison on the islands, leaving 4,000 men under Vaubois while he and the rest of the expeditionary force sailed eastwards for Alexandria on 19 June.[10]

Battle of the Nile

Further information: Battle of the Nile

Bonaparte's convoy was pursued across the Mediterranean by a British fleet of 14 ships under Rear-Admiral

Second Coalition against France.[15]

Siege

Maltese uprising

Bishop of Malta
.

On Malta, the French had rapidly dismantled the institutions of the Knights of St. John, including the

Roman Catholic Church. Church property was looted and seized to pay for the expedition to Egypt,[6] an act that generated considerable anger among the deeply religious Maltese population. On 2 September 1798, this anger erupted in a popular uprising during an auction of church property, and within days thousands of Maltese irregulars had driven the French garrison into Valletta.[16] Valletta was surrounded by approximately 10,000 irregular Maltese soldiers led by Emmanuele Vitale and Canon Francesco Saverio Caruana. The Maltese were armed with 23 cannon and a small squadron of coastal gunboats. Although there was intermittent skirmishing between the garrison and the Maltese, the fortress was too strong for the irregulars to assault.[17]

In mid-September, a squadron of Portuguese ships had arrived at the island. They included the

Príncipe Real (90 cannons; Captain Puysigur), Rainha de Portugal (74; Captain Thomas Stone), São Sebastião (74; Captain Mitchell), Afonso de Albuquerque (74; Captain Donald Campbell), and the brig Falcão (24; Captain Duncan). All were under the command of Domingos Xavier de Lima, Marquess of Niza.[2] In addition, the British ship HMS Lion (Captain Manley Dixon) and the fireship HMS Incendiary (Captain George Baker) were attached to the squadron. The Portuguese government had sent this force from the Tagus to augment Nelson's fleet. After a brief stay off Malta the squadron continued to Alexandria. There Nelson sent the squadron back to blockade Malta.[18]

Late in September, a British convoy consisting of 13 battered ships under Captain

Sir James Saumarez appeared off the island. Survivors of the Battle of the Nile, they were in urgent need of repair and unable to directly assist in the siege.[2] Nevertheless, Saumarez met with representatives of the Maltese and on 25 September, sent an offer of truce to Vaubois on their behalf. Vaubois replied "Vous avez, sans doute, oublié que des Français sont dans la place. Le sort des habitans [sic] ne vous regarde pointe. Quant à votre sommation, les soldats français ne sont point habitués à ce style" ("You might have forgotten that the French hold this place. The fate of the inhabitants is none of your concern. As for your ultimatum, French soldiers are not accustomed to such a tone").[2] Unable to persuade the French to give in, Saumarez instead provided the Maltese forces with 1,200 muskets with which to continue the siege[19] and, unable to delay repairs any longer, sailed for Gibraltar
at the end of the month.

On 12 October, the British ships of the line

Guillaume Tell and frigates Justice and Diane, survivors of the Battle of the Nile under Rear-Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, which had reached Malta at the end of September.[19]

Capture of Gozo

The warship Queen of Portugal, of the Marquis of Nisa's squadron, and the squadron of Admiral Ball meet during the blockade of Malta, in October 1798.

On 24 October, after a ten-day passage from Naples,[20] Nelson joined the blockade squadron in HMS Vanguard accompanied by HMS Minotaur.[19] On 28 October, Ball successfully completed negotiations with the French garrison on the small island of Gozo, the 217 French soldiers there agreeing to surrender without a fight and transferring the island, its fortifications, 24 cannon, a large quantity of ammunition and 3,200 sacks of flour to the British.[17] Although the island was formally claimed by King Ferdinand of Naples, it was administered by British and Maltese representatives, whose first action was to distribute the captured food supplies to the island's 16,000 inhabitants. Malta and the surrounding islands were not self-sufficient and quickly the challenge of feeding the population became a strain on the islands' resources, particularly with so many men under arms. Although now formally in command of the islands, King Ferdinand refused to assist with supplies, and the responsibility was left to Ball and his captains to arrange for the transport of supplies from Italy.[16] By the end of the year, the number of Maltese troops in the field had fallen from 10,000 to 1,500, supported by 500 British and Portuguese marines from the blockade squadron.[21] The blockade fleet, consisting of five British and four Portuguese ships, operated from St. Paul's Bay and Marsa Sirocco (now Marsaxlokk) on the island of Malta itself.[16]

Blockade

Casa Leoni, the command base for the Maltese insurgents

1799 was a frustrating year for the British and Maltese forces deployed against the French forces, as efforts to secure sufficient forces to prosecute the siege were repeatedly denied. Major-General

Etienne Eustache Bruix entered the Western Mediterranean, forcing Nelson to recall his scattered fleet from across the region, temporarily raising the blockade of Malta.[23] During this operation a number of French supply ships took advantage of the absence of the British squadron to enter Valletta.[21]

Map of Tal-Borg Battery, one of the batteries built by the Maltese to bombard French positions and repel any counterattack

However, despite these occasional supply ships, the French garrison was rapidly running out of food. To conserve resources, the French forced the civilian population out of the city; the civilian population dropped from 45,000 in 1799 to 9,000 by 1800.

First Consul of France prompted a brief respite and a public statement from Vaubois that the city would never be surrendered, although conditions continued to deteriorate.[22]

Convoy battles

Further information:
Battle of the Malta Convoy (1800)

At the beginning of February 1800, the Neapolitan government, reinstated in Naples after being expelled the year before, finally agreed to participate in the siege and 1,200 troops were embarked on a squadron led by Vice-Admiral Lord Keith's flagship HMS Queen Charlotte and landed on Malta.[22] For a time, both Keith and Nelson remained with the blockade squadron, which consisted of six ships of the line, along with a few Neapolitan ships of the line, and several British and Neapolitan frigates. On 17 February a message arrived with the squadron from the frigate HMS Success, which had been stationed off Sicily to watch for French reinforcements. Captain Shuldham Peard reported that he was shadowing a squadron of six or seven French ships sailing in the direction of Malta.[26] These vessels were a relief squadron, sent from Toulon with extensive food supplies and 3,000 additional troops under Contre-Admiral Jean-Baptiste Perrée in Généreux, one of the ships of the line that had escaped at the Nile two years earlier.[27] On 18 February, the convoy was sighted by lookouts on Alexander. In the ensuing chase, Success captured a French transport and attacked the much larger Généreux.[28] Although the frigate was damaged in the exchange, Success' second broadside mortally wounded Perrée and delayed the ship of the line long enough for HMS Foudroyant, under Lord Nelson, and HMS Northumberland to join the battle. Heavily outnumbered, Généreux surrendered.[29]

Further information: Action of 31 March 1800
Capture of the Guillaume Tell

Shortly after the capture of the Généreux, Keith returned to the Italian coast in Queen Charlotte, where his flagship was lost in a fire that killed more than 700 of its crew, although Keith was ashore at the time.

Sir Edward Berry proved too much for Decrés, but he continued fighting for another two hours before he was forced to surrender his battered and dismasted ship; in the engagement, he lost more than 200 men killed and wounded.[34]

Nelson's cruise

In the aftermath of these French defeats at sea, and with the food supply in Valletta dwindling, the British sent another demand for capitulation. Vaubois again refused, with the reply "Cette place est en trop bon état, et je suis moi-même trop jaloux de bien servir mon pays et de conserver mon honneur, pour écouter vos propositions." ("This place is in too good a situation, and I am too conscious of the service of my country and my honour, to listen to your proposals").[35] In reality, the situation was dire: during February, prices of basic foodstuffs stood at 16 francs for a fowl, 12 francs for a rabbit, 20 sous for an egg, 18 sous for a lettuce, 40 sous for a rat and six francs per pound for fish. For the civilian typhus patients, the only food available was horse-flesh soup.[32]

On 23 April, Nelson departed Palermo in Foudroyant, with both Sir William and Emma Hamilton on board as his guests. The party visited Syracuse and then travelled on to Valletta, where Berry took Foudroyant so close to the harbour that the ship came under fire from the French batteries. It was not hit, but Nelson was furious that Emma had been taken into danger and immediately ordered Berry to withdraw. His anger was exacerbated by Emma's refusal to retire from the quarterdeck during the brief exchange.[36] From there, Foudroyant anchored at Marsa Sirocco, where Nelson and Emma lived together openly and were hosted by Troubridge and Graham. Sir William Hamilton, a prominent antiquarian as well as a diplomat, spent his time exploring the island.[37] By early June, Nelson and his party had returned to Palermo, the beginning of a lengthy overland journey across Europe to Britain. Nelson also detached Foudroyant and Alexander from the blockade, again in defiance of Keith's explicit orders, to assist the Neapolitan royal family in their passage to Livorno.[38] Enraged at Nelson's disobedience, Keith publicly remarked that "Lady Hamilton has had command of the fleet long enough".[39] In May, Troubridge returned to Britain and was replaced in command by Captain George Martin, while Graham was succeeded by Major-General Henry Pigot.[40]

Surrender

View of La Valletta during the siege engraved by Francis Chesham - showing British seige positions from Marsa Battery

The British blockade continued to prevent French efforts to resupply Valletta during the early summer of 1800, and by August the situation was desperate: no horses or pack animals, dogs, cats, fowls or rabbits still lived within the city, the cisterns had been emptied and even firewood was in short supply. So desperate was the need for wood that the frigate Boudeuse, trapped by the blockade, was broken up for fuel by the beleaguered garrison. With defeat now inevitable, Vaubois gave orders that the frigates Diane and Justice were to attempt a breakout for Toulon, with minimal crews of approximately 115 men each.[35] On 24 August, when the wind was favourable and the night dark enough to obscure their movements, the frigates put to sea. Almost immediately, lookouts on HMS Success sighted them and Captain Peard gave chase, followed by HMS Genereux and Northumberland. Diane under Captain Solen was too slow and Peard soon overhauled the under-strength French ship, which surrendered after a brief exchange of shot.[41] The frigate later became HMS Niobe. Justice, under Captain Jean Villeneuve, was faster, however, and outran its pursuers, eventually making Toulon, the only ship from Malta to do so during the siege.[34]

On 3 September, with his men dying of starvation and disease at the rate of more than 100 a day, Vaubois called a council of his officers at which they unanimously decided to surrender.

Civil Commissioner of Malta.[24]

Aftermath

Fighting for the Dunghill, cartoon by James Gillray depicting Jack Tar fighting Bonaparte. The cartoonist has misplaced Malta, possibly confusing its location with that of Cyprus.

The terms of the surrender were absolute: the island, its dependencies, fortifications and military supplies were all turned over to British control. This included the ships of the line Athenien and Dégo and the frigate Carthagénaise (these were all French ships previously captured from the Order), although only Athenien was of sufficient standard to be incorporated into the Royal Navy, becoming HMS Athenienne. The other ships were broken up in their berths. The British also took two merchant ships and a variety of smaller warships.[43]

The capture of Malta gave control of the central Mediterranean to Britain and was an important step in the invasion and liberation of Egypt from French rule in 1801.[44]

An essential condition of the Treaty of Amiens in the same year, which brought an end to the French Revolutionary War, was that the British leave Malta. The Napoleonic Wars with the French Empire began soon afterwards, in part due to the unwillingness of the United Kingdom to comply with this clause of the treaty. The Russian Tsar Alexander I had a long-standing claim to the island as titular head of the Knights of St. John, and demanded that it be turned over to Russian control before agreeing to any alliance with Britain. Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger flatly refused, and the Russians backed down, agreeing to an anti-French alliance.[45]

The island remained in British hands until

its independence in 1964.[46]

References

  1. ^ a b Montgomery, Robert (1837). History of the British Possessions in the Mediterranean: Comprising Gibraltar, Malta, Gozo, and the Ionian Islands. Martin Whittaker & Company. pp. 148–50. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d James, Vol. 2, p. 188
  3. ^ a b Castillo 2006, p. 122.
  4. ^ Cole, p. 13
  5. ^ James, Vol. 2, p. 151
  6. ^ a b Cole, p. 10
  7. ^ Cole, p. 8
  8. ^ Cole, p. 9
  9. ^ Gardiner, p. 21
  10. ^ Adkins, p. 13
  11. ^ Mostert, p. 254
  12. ^ Bradford, p. 187
  13. ^ James, Vol. 2, p. 159
  14. ^ Mostert, p. 272
  15. ^ Gardiner, p. 58
  16. ^ a b c Gardiner, p. 67
  17. ^ a b c d James, Vol. 2, p. 189
  18. ^ Clowes, p. 376.
  19. ^ a b c Clowes, p. 374
  20. ^ Bradford, p. 222
  21. ^ a b c d Gardiner, p. 68
  22. ^ a b c d e James, Vol. 3, p. 14
  23. ^ Clowes, p. 390
  24. ^
    doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/1210. (Subscription or UK public library membership
    required.)
  25. ^ Mostert, p. 365
  26. ^ Bradford, p. 245
  27. ^ Clowes, p. 419
  28. ^ Woodman, p. 141
  29. ^ Bradford, p. 247
  30. ^ Grocott, p. 92
  31. ^ Mostert, p. 366
  32. ^ a b James, Vol. 3, p. 16
  33. ^ Clowes, p. 421
  34. ^ a b Woodman, p. 143
  35. ^ a b James, Vol. 3, p. 20
  36. ^ Bradford, p. 249
  37. ^ Bradford, p. 250
  38. ^ Mostert, p. 374
  39. ^ Bradford, p. 251
  40. ^ James, Vol. 3, p. 21
  41. ^ "The lifting of the 1565 Siege of Malta – Joseph F. Grima". Times of Malta. 4 September 2022. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  42. ^ Clowes, p. 422
  43. ^ Clowes, p. 423
  44. ^ Gardiner, p. 78
  45. ^ Mostert, p. 461
  46. ^ Gardiner, p. 70

Bibliography

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