History of Vilnius

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

"Legend has it that the Grand Duke of Lithuania,
represents a castle
and a city which will be established by you on this site. This city will be the capital of the Lithuanian lands and the dwelling of their rulers, and the glory of their deeds shall echo throughout the world"
The Legend of the Founding of Vilnius[1]

The city of

Interwar Poland, and Lithuania. It was especially often the site of conflict after the end of World War I and during World War II
. It officially became the capital of independent, modern-day Lithuania when the Soviet Union recognized the country's independence in August 1991.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania

The oldest known mentioning of Vilnius in written sources in a Gediminas' letter, 25 January 1323

The earliest settlements in the area of present-day Vilnius appear to be of

Baltic settlement, later it was also inhabited by Slavs, Jews and Germans. Some historians identify the city with Voruta, a forgotten capital of King Mindaugas
.

The city was first mentioned in written sources as Vilna in 1323 as the capital city of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the letters of Gediminas.[2] Gediminas built his wooden castle on a hill in the city. The city became more widely known after he wrote a circular letter of invitation to Germans and Jews to the principal Hansa towns in 1325, offering free access into his domains to men of every order and profession. Gediminas founded first Dominican monastery in 1321. In the second half of the century church of St. Nicholas was erected. At this time Vilnius was facing numerous raids of the Teutonic Order, although they never captured the castle, large portions of the town were burned down in years 1365, 1377 and 1383.

Vilnius was granted

merchants of other nationalities settled in the city. In the 14th century, the town was marked by wooden architecture. Stone building existed only at the foot of mount Gedimas and in the surroundings of the Vokiečių gatvė (German street), where German craftsmen and merchants were housed around the Church of Saint Nicholas.[3]

The earliest known depiction of Vilnius, late 14th century[4][5]
St. Nicholas
, the oldest church in Lithuania built before 1387
Remaining Wall of Vilnius fragment

According to a tale, tired after a busy hunting day,

Radziwiłł.[6][7][8] The derivative of the Lithuanian name Radvila has also been interpreted as derived from Belarusian радзіць or Polish
radzi 'advises'. The Lithuanian word for 'wolf' is vilkas.

Vilnius Cathedral in 1847

English king Henry IV spent the full year of 1390 supporting the unsuccessful siege of Vilnius by

Teutonic Knights with his 300 fellow knights. During this campaign, Henry Bolingbroke also bought captured Lithuanian princes and then apparently took them back to England. King Henry's second expedition to Lithuania in 1392 illustrates the financial benefits to the Order of these guest crusaders. His small army consisted of over 100 men, including longbow
archers and six minstrels, at a total cost to the Lancastrian purse of £4,360. Much of this sum benefited the local economy through the purchase of silverware and the hiring of boats and equipment. Despite the efforts of Bolingbroke and his English crusaders, two years of attacks on Vilnius proved fruitless.

Between 1503 and 1522, for the sake of protection from

Royal Palace of Lithuania
.

The gradual Polonization of Vilnius, which began in the late 14th century,[9] proceeded through the influx of Polish elements[citation needed] and assimilation of non-Polish burghers. The early Polish population was composed mainly of clerics, craftsmen and merchants, who migrated to the Lithuanian capital in particularly noticeable numbers after the Polish court of Sigismund August moved to Vilnius.[9]

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Vilnius panorama in 1600

After the

Lithuanian Statutes
issued in the 16th century, the last of which was still in force until the 19th century.

Map of Vilnius in 1576, from the "World's Cities' Atlas" by Georg Braun

Rapidly developing, the city was open to migrants from both East and West. In addition to old citizens, larger Jewish, Orthodox and German communities established themselves in the city. Each group made its contribution to the life of the city, and crafts, trade and science prospered. In the 17th century, Polish and Polonized population began to dominate culturally and likely numerically.[9]

In 1610, the city was racked by a large fire.[10] In 1655, during the First Northern War, Vilnius was captured by the forces of Tsardom of Russia and was pillaged, burned and the population was massacred. The death toll of around 20,000 included a large proportion of Vilnius Jews.[11] The city's growth lost its momentum for many years, yet the number of inhabitants recovered. During the Commonwealth's decline, Vilnius became known as "Jerusalem of the North" - a major religion-cultural centre of Eastern European Jewry.[12] In 1769, the Rasos Cemetery was founded; today it is one of the oldest surviving cemeteries in the city.

Russian Empire

St. John's church, Jan Kazimierz Wilczyński, 1850
Vilniaus Žinios, circulating in Vilnius after the ban on Lithuanian press
printed in the Latin script was lifted

After the

his push towards Moscow. After the campaign's failure, the Grande Armée retreated to the area where 80,000 French soldiers died and were buried in the trenches they had built months earlier. After the November Uprising the Vilnius University was closed and repressions halted the city's further development. Civil unrest in 1861 was suppressed by the Imperial Russian Army.[15] During the January Uprising in 1863 heavy city fights occurred, but were brutally pacified by Mikhail Muravyov, nicknamed The Hanger by the population because of the number of executions he organized.[citation needed] After the uprising, Polish was banned from public use. The Latin alphabet was prohibited in 1859 (Belarusian) and 1865 (Lithuanian); the ban was lifted in 1904.[16]

A Roman Catholic St. Joseph Church being demolished by the order of tsarist authorities, as photographed by Józef Czechowicz, Vilnius, 1877

During the second half of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century Vilnius also became one of the centres of Jewish, Polish, Lithuanian and Belarusian national rebirths. According to the 1897 Russian census, by mother tongue, 40% of the population was Jewish, 31% Polish, 20% Russian, 4.2% Belarusian and 2.1% Lithuanian.[17][18] Jewish culture and population was so dominant that some Jewish national revival leaders argued for a new Jewish state to be founded in the Vilnius region, with the city as its capital. These national revivals happened in Vilnius because it was one of the most tolerant, progressive and liberal places in the region, a legacy of tolerance deriving from the years of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. One of the most important Polish, Belarusian poets and writers published their works in Vilnius at that time. It was the place where the first Belarusian weekly Nasha Niva was founded.[citation needed]

Vilnius became an important place of the act of the Lithuanian national revival on 4–5 December 1905, when the

regions of Lithuania
as well as emigres. It was decided to make a demand to establish an autonomous ethnic Lithuanian state within the Russian Empire with its parliament (Seimas) in Vilnius.

Cultural life was revived after the

Emilia and Eustachy Wróblewski Library, the centre of Polish culture, was established in 1912, around that time also Polish theatre was revived.[19] Polish cultural life was still repressed despite its revival. In 1907 bishop Eduard von der Ropp was expelled from Vilnius to Vitebsk.[citation needed
]

Interwar period

Polish-Lithuanian conflict

Selected lines of demarcation between Lithuania and Poland, 1919–1991
Ethnographic composition in 1912 and territorial changes of borders of Poland after World War I

During

Ober-Ost declined to pass full authority to Lithuania, which was not controlled by the Germans anymore. Instead, the Germans tried to control the area through promoting conflicts between local nationalities as it became clear that the German plan for the creation of Mitteleuropa
, a net of satellite buffer states, failed.

Finally, on 1 January 1919, the German garrison withdrew and passed the authority over the city to a local Polish committee, against the pleas of the Lithuanian administration.[

Polish Army.[24] A year later, on 14 July 1920, it was lost to Soviet forces again (this time, the Soviets were aided by Lithuanians, who were promised Vilnius).[25]

Commemorative medal for the fights in April 1919
"Proclamation to the Inhabitants of the Former Grand Duchy of Lithuania" in Lithuanian and Polish
(22 April 1919).

Shortly after the defeat in the Battle of Warsaw in 1920, the withdrawing Red Army handed the city over to Lithuania, following the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty of 12 July 1920.[26] The treaty allowed for the transfer to Lithuanian authority of some part of the areas of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Although the city itself, as well as its surroundings, were actually transferred, the fast pace of the Polish offensive prevented additional territories to be handed over by the Red Army and the disputed area was split into Lithuanian and Polish-controlled parts.[citation needed]

Many historians argue[

Bolshevik Russia was forced to temporary abandon her plans for the reincorporation of all the lands lost by the Russian Empire in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
.

As Russia ceased to be a major player in the area, Polish-Lithuanian relations worsened. In demographic terms Vilnius was one of the most Polonized and Russified[27][28] of Lithuanian cities during 1795-1914 Russian rule,[29] with Lithuanians constituting a mere fraction of the total population: 2% - 2,6% according to Russian (1897), German (1916) and Polish (1919) censuses. The latter two indicated that 50,1% or 56,2% of the inhabitants were Poles, while the Jewish share in the population amounted to 43,5% or 36,1%[30][31][32] (they were conducted after a large part of the inhabitants of Vilnius were evacuated to Russia,[33][34] mostly Voronezh[35] because of war in 1915). The Lithuanians nonetheless have a strong historical claim to the city (former capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the very centre of the formation of medieval Lithuanian state) and refused to recognize any Polish claims to the city and the surrounding area.[29] Lithuanian national activists, for example Mykolas Biržiška and Petras Klimas, supposed Poles and Belarusians in the Vilnius province to be "Slavicized Lithuanians" who, regardless of their individual preferences, must "return to the language of their blood".[36]

After the Bolshevik armies were pushed out of the area, the line reached by the Lithuanian forces before the Poles arrived was secured and diplomatic talks started. However, the negotiations on the future of the disputed area, held under the auspice of the

plebiscite, the Poles decided to change the stalemate by creating a fait accompli for their own cause (see Polish–Lithuanian War
).

On 9 October 1920, the 1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division under General Lucjan Żeligowski seized the city in a staged mutiny. Vilnius was declared the capital of Republic of Central Lithuania, with Żeligowski as its head of state.[26][37] The negotiations in Brussels continued, but the Polish move complexified the situation. Among the plans proposed by the Entente was a creation of a Polish-Lithuanian state based on a cantonal system, with shared control over the disputed area. While this was acceptable to both sides, Poland insisted on inviting the Central Lithuanian representatives to the talks. Simultaneously, the Lithuanian politicians argued that Central Lithuania was but a puppet state of Poland and rejected the idea. Finally, the talks came to yet another stalemate and no agreement was reached.

Elections in Central Lithuania

Main article:
Election in Central Lithuania

On 8 January 1922, general parliamentary elections were held in Central Lithuania. Apart from the Lithuanian, Jewish and Belarusian organisations that eventually decided to

Soviet-Lithuanian Treaty of 1920, known as the Vilnius region.[40][41][42]

Group of 32 Lithuanian activists, among them Mykolas Biržiška and Juozapas Kukta were deported to Lithuania on 6 February 1922, they were charged with espionage, what theoretically could be punished with death, but Polish officials just wanted to get rid of the most troublesome individuals, which anti-Polish activity was funded by the government in Kaunas.[43][44][45]

At the

Wilno Voivodship.[46][47]

The

Council of Ambassadors and the international community (except for Lithuania) recognized Vilnius (Wilno) as part of Poland in 1923.[48][49] The Lithuanian authorities never accepted the status quo and continued to claim sovereignty over the Region of Vilnius. Also, the city itself was declared the constitutional capital of the Lithuanian state while Kaunas was only a temporary capital of Lithuania. Lithuania closed the border and broke all diplomatic relations with Poland. The two countries remained at the de facto state of war until the Polish ultimatum to Lithuania
in 1938.

Poland

Stefan Batory University
Wilno Voivodship in Poland
Map of the Wilno Voivodship

Poles together with Jews, made up a majority in the city of Vilnius itself. In the years 1920–1939

Vincas Taškūnas, Povilas Karazija, Juozas Kairiūkštis, Vytautas Kairiūkštis, Kostas Aleksa and others, political process of May 1925, where 22 Lithuanians, that were under the threat of the death penalty, but were saved by Tadeusz Wróblewski, etc.[51]

Polish nation and to assimilate them.[52] Romuald Jałbrzykowski cooperated with Ludwik Bociański and prohibited Catholic Belarusians to be members of Belarusian societies, thus until World War II only one Belarusian society (Belarusian Beekeepers' Society) remained.[53]

In spite of the unfavorable geopolitical situation (which prevented the trade with the immediate neighbors of Lithuania, Germany and Soviet Russia, life in the town flourished.[

Stefan Batory University, and Polish was reintroduced as the language of instruction.[57] By 1931 the city had 195,000 inhabitants, which made it the fifth-largest city in Poland.[citation needed] The city became an important centre of Polish cultural and scientific life, while economically the rest of the region remained relatively backward.[citation needed] It was claimed that this relative underdevelopment, among other issues, was the reason for difficulties with integrating the region and the city with Lithuania when it regained Vilnius in 1939.[citation needed
]

Vilnius was also an informal capital of

Second World War in Vilnius. Four YIVO directors emigrated to New York.[citation needed
]

Situation of Lithuanian minority

According to Lithuanian historian Antanas Tyla [lt] the Polish administration in the Vilnius Region carried out policy of polonization and ethnocide of Lithuanians.[58] The situation of the Lithuanian minority worsened especially during the tenure of the Vilnius Voivode Ludwik Bociański [pl], who, especially from 1936, introduced a policy of repression..[59] On 1936 February 11, a secret anti-Lithuanian memorandum called O posunięciach władz administracji ogólnej w stosunku do mniejszości litewskiej w Polsce oraz o zamierzeniach w tym wględzie na przyszłość (transl. About the actions of the general administration authorities in relation to the Lithuanian minority in Poland and about plans for the future in this regard) was issued by voivode Ludwik Bociański to the Polish administration, which stated the measures for suppressing the Lithuanian minority in Vilnius and the adjacent region, then under Polish control.[59][60] The execution of the secret anti-Lithuanian document, adopted by voivode Ludwik Bociański, resulted in closure of almost all Lithuanian schools, reading rooms, ban of Lithuanian organizations, while its members were imprisoned or deported.[61][62] As a result, at the beginning of the 1939/40 school year, Lithuanian education in Poland was limited to the only private primary school and a sole private secondary school, named after Vytautas the Great in Vilnius. In addition, in 102 state common schools with Polish as the language of instruction, Lithuanian language was virtually taught as a subject.[63]

World War II

See also: Ponary massacre

Return to Lithuania

Further information: Vilnius Region under Lithuanian administration (1939-1940)
Soviet cavalry entering Vilna on 19 September 1939

At the beginning of the

Byelorussian SSR in case the Lithuanian side would not negotiate the future status of Vilnius according to the already prepared Soviet agenda.[64]

After talks in

Lithuanian Jews, although some people involved in Soviet activities decided to leave.[67] In few days over 3000 Jews left Vilnius for the Soviet Union.[68] The Lithuanian army entered Vilnius on 28 October, but it was clear for Lithuanian officials that Vilnius could not be established as a capital without proper preparation.[69] So for the time being former prime minister Antanas Merkys was named special government representative for the city of Vilnius and Vilnius region, he was later replaced by Kazys Bizauskas
.

A month of Soviet rule in Vilnius had catastrophic consequences: the city was starving, the museums and archives looted, the valuables, industry[70] and historic documents were stolen and transferred to Russia, and many people were imprisoned or deported. Apparently, the Lithuanian government was deliberately slowing down the transfer of the capital back to Vilnius due to fears that the Soviet military presence around the city would enable the Russians to overthrow the Lithuanian government if it were based there.

Lithuanian army entering Vilnius
Lithuanian tanks in Vilnius
Lithuanian soldier observing Vilnius

Annexation of Vilnius was greeted with rejoicing among Lithuanians, a whole generation was raised in the belief that Lithuania cannot be truly itself without the city of Vilnius – its capital, inscribed in

Gediminas Tower.[72]

After the Lithuanian army entered the city, at the end of October 1939, the demoralized Polish local population started a four-day-long anti-Jewish pogrom, in which one person lost their life and some 200 were wounded.[73][74]), the Jewish community asked nearby Russian military units for intervention. The violence only stopped after a group of 35 Soviet tanks briefly re-entered the city and put an end to the pogrom.[75] This prevented further pogroms, that were expected on the 10th–11 November, a traditional day of anti-Jewish disturbances in the city.[67]

The Lithuanian authorities started a campaign of de-occupation and de-Polonization of the city, similar policies also targeted the Jews.[73] Immediately upon entering the city, the Lithuanian authorities abolished the use of Polish złoty (as occupied by the Germans and the Soviets Poland ceased to exist a month earlier and its currency crashed) and ordered the currency to be converted to Lithuanian litas, with only a 250% devaluation.[73] Soon other discriminatory[clarification needed] policies followed. During the several months-long period of retaking of Lithuanian capital, which from the Polish point of view was an unlawful occupation,[76] roughly 50,000 Lithuanians (mostly officials of state ministries and their family members) came to the capital city of Lithuanians.[77]

One of the decisions made by Lithuanian authorities in this period was reformation of the

better source needed] from riding on trains.[77]

Soviet occupation

The process of moving the capital was not yet finished when in June 1940, despite Lithuanian resistance,[

Lithuanian SSR. Approximately 35,000 – 40,000 of the city inhabitants were arrested by the NKVD and sent to gulags
or deported to Siberia or Kazakhstan at that time.

German occupation

In June 1941 the city was again seized by Nazi Germany. In the old town centre, two

Armia Krajowa, which at the time was fighting against both Germans and Lithuanians
.

Soviet occupation

View of the Vilnius Old Town, 1944

The Germans were forced to leave Vilnius in July 1944 by the combined pressure from the

Battle of Vilnius (1944)). In 1944–1947 the opponents of the regime included were captured, interrogated in the NKVD Palace in Lukiškės Square, executed and buried in the Tuskulėnai Manor
park.

Monument to the victims of KGB terror in Vilnius.

The Soviets decided that Vilnius was to become again part of the

transfer the Polish population from Lithuania and Belarus.[79] This decision was soon implemented and most of the population was expelled in an operation organized by Soviet and local communist authorities.[79] In some cases the transfer was voluntary, but not all willing people were able to leave because Poles living in rural areas were forced to remain where they had lived.[79][80]

Vilnius suffered relatively little wartime damage, and most of its buildings survived the war unscathed. However, the decade after the war, both ghetto areas with the famous Great Synagogue and the northern part of German street, as well as the whole quarter on Pilies street, were torn down.[81]

By the end of the war, only 111.000 people were left in Vilnius

Russophone minority,[79] and slow but steady emigration of the surviving Jews to Israel
, had a critical influence on the demographic situation of the city in the 1960s. Vilnius experienced a rapid population upsurge due to the inner migration of Lithuanians from the other parts of the country to the capital.

Independent Lithuania

Beginning in 1987 there were massive demonstrations against Soviet rule in the country. On 23 August 1988, 150,000-200,000 people gathered in Vilnius.

Soviet coup attempt of 1991
.

The importance of Vilnius for Belarus remained at the end of the 20th century. In June 1989 Vilnius was the site of the Belarusian Popular Front conference as the Belorussian Soviet authorities would not allow the event to take place in Belarus. At the beginning of the 21st century, several institutes such as the European Humanities University and the independent sociology centre NISEPI were persecuted in Belarus by the government of Alexander Lukashenko have found an asylum in Vilnius.

In the years following its independence, Vilnius has been rapidly evolving and improving, transforming from a Soviet-dominated enclave into a modern European city in less than 15 years.

In July 11-12, 2023, a NATO summit was held in Vilnius.[86]

See also

References

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  63. ^ Miąso, Józefa, ed. (1980). Historia wychowania. Wiek XX (in Polish). Warsaw. pp. 131–132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  64. ^ Это вам не 1939 год. Родина (in Russian). Москва: ООО «Родина МЕДИА». September 2006. Archived from the original on 4 September 2012.
  65. ^ Mačiulis & Staliūnas 2015, p. 173-174
  66. ^ Mačiulis & Staliūnas 2015, p. 175-176
  67. ^ a b Bauer p. 108
  68. ^ Levin, p. 44
  69. ^ Mačiulis & Staliūnas 2015, p. 180
  70. ^ The whole "Elektrit" factory was transferred to Minsk, together with all the qualified workers (Levin, p. 40)
  71. ^ Stankeras 2010, p. 224
  72. ^ Mačiulis & Staliūnas 2015, p. 181
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    ISBN 978-0253355201
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  80. ^ Stravinskienė, Vitalija (2004). "Poles in Lithuania from the second half of 1944 until 1946: choosing between staying or emigrating to Poland (summary)". Lietuvos istorijos metraštis, 2004 vol 2. The Lithuanian institute of history. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 13 February 2007.
  81. ^ KAROLIS KUČIAUSKAS / KARO PADARINIŲ VERTINIMAS VILNIAUS SENAMIESTYJE 1944 M.
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  83. ISBN 978-02-53-00631-8
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  85. ISBN 978-14-74-27522-4
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  86. ^ "NATO In Retrospect". www.nato.int. 27 July 2023. Retrieved 15 September 2023.

Bibliography

See also: Timeline of Vilnius § Bibliography

External links

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