Imperial Russian Army

Russian Imperial Army
Ру́сская импера́торская а́рмия (Russian)
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Motto	За Веру, Царя и Отечество "For Faith, Tsar, and Fatherland"
Founded	2 November 1721; 302 years ago (2 November 1721)
Disbanded	22 November 1917; 106 years ago (22 November 1917)[a]
Service branches	Regular troops[3] Cossack troops[3] Muslim troops[3] State militia[3]
Headquarters	Imperial Main Headquarters[4]
Leadership
Commander-in-chief	Emperor of Russia[4]
Governing body	General Staff[4] Stavka of the Supreme Commander (1914–17)
Supreme Commander (World War I)	Grand Duke Nicholas (first) Nikolay Dukhonin (last)
Chief of the General Staff	Pavel Gavrilovich Gagarin (first) Vladimir Marushevsky (last)
Personnel
Military age	21–43[3]
Conscription	3–4 years; compulsory service[3]
Active personnel	1,000,000[5]–1,300,000[6] (1913) 15,000,000+ (total served; 1914–17)[5]
Expenditure
Budget	325.6 million rubles (1902)[7]
Related articles
History	Military history of the Russian Empire
Ranks	Ranks of the Imperial Russian military

The Imperial Russian Army or Russian Imperial Army (

Russian tsars before Peter the Great maintained professional hereditary musketeer corps known as streltsy. These were originally raised by Ivan the Terrible;^[10] originally an effective force, they had become highly unreliable and undisciplined. In times of war, the armed forces were augmented by peasants.

The regiments of the new order, or regiments of the foreign order (Полки нового строя or Полки иноземного строя, Polki novovo (inozemnovo) stroya), was the Russian term that was used to describe military units that were formed in the Tsardom of Russia in the 17th century according to the Western European military standards.^[11]

There were different kinds of regiments, such as the regulars (infantry), dragoons, and reiters. In 1631, the Russians created two regular regiments in Moscow. During the Smolensk War of 1632–1634, six more regular regiments, one reiter regiment, and a dragoon regiment were formed. Initially, they recruited children of the landless boyars and streltsy, volunteers, Cossacks and others. Commanding officers comprised mostly foreigners. After the war with Poland, all of the regiments were disbanded. During another Russo-Polish War, they were created again and became a principal force of the Russian Army. Often, regular and dragoon regiments were manned with datochniye lyudi for lifelong military service. Reiters were manned with small or landless gentry and boyars' children and were paid with money (or lands) for their service. More than a half of the commanding officers were representatives from the gentry. In times of peace, some of the regiments were usually disbanded.

In 1681, there were 33 regular regiments (61,000 men) and 25 dragoon and reiter regiments (29,000 men). In the late 17th century, regiments of the new type represented more than a half of the Russian Army and at the beginning of the 18th century were used for creating a regular army.

Conscription in Russia was introduced by Peter the Great in December 1699,^[12] though reports say Peter's father also used it. The conscripts were called "recruits" (not to be confused with voluntary army recruitment,^[13] which did not appear until the early 20th century).

Peter formed a modern regular army built on the German model, but with a new aspect: officers not necessarily from nobility, as talented commoners were given promotions that eventually included a noble title at the attainment of an officer's rank (such promotions were later abolished during the reign of Catherine the Great). Conscription of peasants and townspeople was based on quota system, per settlement. Initially, it was based on the number of households, later it was based on the population numbers.^[13]

The term of service in the 18th century was for life. In 1793, it was reduced to 25 years. In 1834, it was reduced to 20 years plus five years in the reserve, and in 1855 to 12 years plus three years in the reserve.^[13]

The history of the Russian Army in this era was principally linked to the name of Russian General Alexander Suvorov, considered to be one of the few great generals in history who never lost a battle.

From 1777 to 1783 Suvorov served in the Crimea and in the Caucasus, becoming a lieutenant-general in 1780, and general of infantry in 1783, on the conclusion of his work there. From 1787 to 1791 he again fought the Turks during the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792 and won many victories. Suvorov's leadership also played a key role in a Russian victory over the Poles during the Kościuszko Uprising.^[14]

As a major European power, Russia could not escape the wars involving Revolutionary France and the First French Empire, but as an adversary to Napoleon, the leadership of the new emperor, Alexander I of Russia (r. 1801–1825), who came to the throne as the result of his father's assassination (in which he was rumoured to be implicated) became crucial.

The Russian Army in 1805 had many characteristics of

Both the Russians and Austrians met a decisive military defeat at the hands of Napoleon during the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805.

The War of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807) involving Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Sweden and the United Kingdom against France formed within months of the collapse of the previous coalition. In August 1806, King Frederick William III of Prussia made the decision to go to war independently of any other great power except neighbouring Russia. Another course of action might have involved declaring war the previous year and joining Austria and Russia. This might have contained Napoleon and prevented the Allied disaster in the Battle of Austerlitz. In any event, the Russian Army, an ally of Prussia, still remained far away when Prussia declared war.

Napoleon smashed the main Prussian armies at the

At the Congress of Erfurt (September–October 1808) Napoleon and Alexander agreed that Russia should force Sweden to join the Continental System, which led to the Finnish War of 1808–1809 and to the division of Sweden into two parts separated by the Gulf of Bothnia. The eastern part became the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland.

The

In the

The requirement of joining France's Continental Blockade against Britain was a serious disruption of Russian commerce, and in 1810 Alexander repudiated the obligation. This strategic change was followed by a substantial reform in the army undertaken by Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly as the Minister of War.

At the same time, Russia continued its expansion. The Congress of Vienna created the Kingdom of Poland (Russian Poland), to which Alexander granted a constitution. Thus, Alexander I became the constitutional monarch of Poland while remaining the autocratic Emperor of Russia. He was also the Grand Duke of Finland, which had been annexed from Sweden in 1809 and awarded autonomous status.

The Russo-French alliance gradually became strained. Napoleon was concerned about Russia's intentions in the strategically vital

In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia to compel

As the French retreated, the Russians pursued them into Poland and Prussia, causing the Prussian Corps under

In 1813 Russia gained territory in the Baku area of the Caucasus from Qajar Iran as much due to the news of Napoleon's defeat in 1812 as the fear by the Shah of a new campaign against him by the resurgent Russian Army where the 1810 campaign led by Matvei Platov failed. This was immediately used to raise new regiments, and to begin creating a greater foothold in the Caucasus. By the early 19th century, the empire also was firmly ensconced in Alaska reached via Cossack expeditions to Siberia, although only a rudimentary military presence was possible due to the distance from Europe.

The campaign in France was marked by persistent advances made by the Russian-led forces towards Paris despite attempts by Alexander's allies to allow Napoleon an avenue for surrender. In a brilliant deceptive manoeuvre Alexander was able to reach, and take Paris with the help of the surrender of Marshal Marmont's beleaguered exhausted troops, before Napoleon, who was out of position and rushing to Paris to defend it, could reinforce its garrison, effectively ending the campaign. More pragmatically, in 1814 Russia, Britain, Austria, and Prussia had formed the Quadruple Alliance. The allies created an international system to maintain the territorial status quo and prevent the resurgence of an expansionist France. This included each ally maintaining a corps of occupation in France. The Quadruple Alliance, confirmed by a number of international conferences, ensured Russia's influence in Europe, if only because of the proven capability of its army to defeat that of Napoleon and to carry the war to Paris.

After the allies defeated Napoleon, Alexander played a prominent role in the redrawing of the map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Many of the prominent Russian commanders were feted in the European capitals, including London. In the same year, under the influence of religious mysticism, Alexander initiated the creation of the Holy Alliance, a loose agreement pledging the rulers of the nations involved—including most of Europe—to act according to Christian principles. This emerged in part due to the influence religion had played in the army during the war of 1812, and its influence on the common soldiers and officers alike.

The Russian occupation forces in France, though not participating in the Belgian campaign, re-entered combat against the minor French forces in the East and occupied several important fortresses.

Following Russia's defeat in the

As part of Milyutin's reforms, on 1 January 1874, the emperor approved a conscription statute that made military service compulsory for all 21-year-old males with the term reduced for land army to six years plus nine years in reserve. This conscription created a large pool of experienced military reservists who would be ready to mobilize in case of war. It also permitted the Russian Empire to maintain a smaller standing army in peacetime. Ironically, this reform was a disaster for the Tsarist regime. By reducing the length of service, peasant elders and officials could no longer threaten radical youths with conscription. Soldiers now kept their peasant identities and many learned new skills and became literate. They radicalised the villages on their return.^[citation needed]

The system of military education was also reformed, and elementary education was made available to all the draftees. Milyutin's reforms are regarded as a milestone in the history of Russia: they dispensed with the military recruitment and professional army introduced by Peter the Great and created the Russian army such as it continued into the 21st century. Up to Dmitry Milyutin's reforms in 1874 the Russian Army had no permanent barracks and was billeted in dugouts and shacks.^[17]

The army saw service against the Turks during the

During the

The army's share of the budget fell from 30% to 18% in 1881–1902.^[18] By 1904 Russia was spending 57% and 63% of what Germany and Austria-Hungary were spending on each soldier, respectively. Army morale was broken by crushing over 1500 protests from 1883 to 1903.^[19]

The Mosin–Nagant rifle was produced in 1891 and in the same year began to be used.

The army was defeated by Japan during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, notable engagements being the Siege of Port Arthur and the Battle of Mukden. There were over 400 mutinies from autumn 1905 to summer 1906.^[20]

At the outbreak of the war, Emperor

The Imperial Russian Army entered the Napoleonic Wars organized administratively and in the field on the same principles as it had been in the 18th century of units being assigned to campaign headquarters, and the "army" being known either for its senior commander, or the area of its operations. Administratively, the regiments were assigned to Military Inspections, the predecessors of military districts, and included the conscript training depots, garrisons and fortress troops and munitions magazines.

The army had been thoroughly reorganised on the Prussian model by the emperor's father Paul I against wishes of most of its officer corps, and with his demise immediate changes followed to remove much of the Prussianness from its character. Although the army had conventional European parts within it such as the monarch's guard, the infantry and cavalry of the line and field artillery, it also included a very large contingent of semi-regular Cossacks that in times of rare peace served to guard the Russian Empire's southern borders, and in times of war served as fully-fledged light cavalry, providing invaluable reconnaissance service often far better than that available to other European armies due to the greater degree of initiative and freedom of movement by Cossack detachments.^[22] The Ukrainian lands of the Empire also provided most of the Hussar and Ulan regiments for the regular light cavalry. Another unusual feature of the army that was seen twice during the period was the constitution of the Narodnoe Opolcheniye, for the first time since the coming to power of the Romanov dynasty.^[23]

In 1806, most of the Inspections were abolished, and replaced by divisions based on the French model although still territorially based. By 1809, there were 25 infantry divisions as permanent field formations, each organised around three infantry brigade and one artillery brigade. When

• 1st Brigade –
  General Major Leontii Depreradovich
  • Preobrazhensky Lifeguard regiment
    (2 btns.)
  • Semenovsky Lifeguard regiment
    (2 btns.)
• 2nd Brigade –
  General Major
  Vasily Lobanov
  • Izmailovsky Lifeguard regiment
    (2 btns.)
  • Life Guard Jäger
    (1 btn.)
  • Life Grenadier regiment (3 btns.)

At Borodino in 1812 the infantry of the Guard included: Guard Infantry Division –

• 1st Brigade –
  General Major
  Baron Roman Rosen
  • Preobrazhensky Lifeguard regiment
    (3 btns.)
  • Semenovsky Lifeguard regiment
    (3 btns.)
• 2nd Brigade — Colonel Vladimir Khrapovitsky
  • Izmailovsky Lifeguard regiment
    (3 btns.)
  • Lithuanian Lifeguard regiment (3 btns.)
• 3rd Brigade — Colonel Baron Adam Bistrom
  • Finnish Lifeguard regiment (3 btns.)
  • Lifeguard Jäger regiment
    (3 btns.)

At Austerlitz in 1805 the cavalry of the Guard included: Guard Cavalry Division –

• 1st Brigade –
  General Major Ivan Yankovich
  • Lifeguard Hussar regiment (4 sq.)
• 2nd Brigade –
  General Major Nikolay Depreradovich
  • Horse Guard regiment (4 sq.)
  • Chevalier Guard Regiment (4 sq.)

At Borodino in 1812 the cavalry of the Guard included: 1st Cuirassier Division –

• 1st Brigade –
  Ivan Shevich
  • Horse Guard Regiment (4 sq.)
  • Chevalier Guard Regiment (4 sq.)
• 2nd Brigade –
  General Major
  Nikolai Borozdin
  • His Majesty Cuirassier Regiment (4 sq.)
  • Her Majesty Cuirassier Regiment (4 sq.)
  • Astrakhan Cuirassier Regiment (4 sq.) (non-Guard status)

As part of the I Cavalry Corps –

• 1st Brigade –
  General Major
  Anton Chalikov
  • Lifeguard Dragoon Regiment (4 sq.)
  • Lifeguard Uhlan Regiment^[25] (4 sq.)
• 2nd Brigade –
  General Major Orlov-Denisov
  • Lifeguard Hussar Regiment (4 sq.)

At Austerlitz in 1805 the Lifeguard Cossack regiment (five sotnias) was attached to the 1st Brigade of the Guard Cavalry Division. At Borodino in 1812 the Cossacks of the Guard included the Lifeguard Cossack regiment (five sotnias), the Black Sea Cossack Guard sotnia, and the Lifeguard Orel sotnia.

The

The army saw combat against the British and French during the Crimean War of 1853–56.

On August 26, 1827, Nicholas I of Russia declared the "Statute on Conscription Duty".^[26] This statute made it mandatory that all Russian males ages twelve to twenty-five were now required to serve in the Russian armed forces for 25 years.^[26] This was the first time that the massive Jewish population was required to serve in the Russian military.^[27] The reasoning for Nicolas for mandatory conscription was because "in the military they would learn not only Russian but also useful skills and crafts, and eventually they would become his loyal subjects."^[26]

Many Jewish families began to emigrate out of the Russian Empire in order to escape the conscription obligations. Due to this, the government began to employ khappers who would kidnap Jewish children and turn them over to the government for conscription. It became known that "the khappers were not scrupulous about adhering to the minimum age of 12 and frequently impressed children as young as 8."^[28] "By the time the empire collapsed, around 1.5 million Jewish soldiers fulfilled what was often seen as a highly burdensome and intrusive obligation."^[27] At first many Jews were hesitant, but by 1880 Russian Jews were fully integrated into the Russian military.^[27]

In the Russian Empire, the Cossacks were organized into several voiskos (

The Cossack institution recruited and incorporated Muslim Mishar Tatars.^[29] Cossack rank was awarded to Bashkirs.^[30] Muslim Turkics and Buddhist Kalmyks served as Cossacks. The Cossack Ural, Terek, Astrakhan, and Don Cossack hosts had Kalmyks in their ranks. Mishar Muslims, Teptiar [ru] Muslims, service Tatar Muslims, and Bashkir Muslims joined the Orenburg Cossack Host.^[31] Cossack non-Muslims shared the same status with Cossack Siberian Muslims.^[32] Muslim Cossacks in Siberia requested an Imam.^[33] Cossacks in Siberia included Tatar Muslims like in Bashkiria.^[34]

From 1914 to 1917 the Caucasian Native Cavalry Division (later the Caucasian Native Cavalry Corps; often called the "Savage Division"), grouped together mainly Muslim volunteers from the Caucasus region.

From 1915 to 1917, the Latvian Riflemen fought in the Imperial Russian Army against the Imperial German Army. This military formation was formed by volunteers, and from 1916 by conscription among the Latvian population. They were used as an elite force in the Imperial and Red armies.

See for a more detailed history, ranks, and insignia

• Main article: Comparative officer ranks of World War I
• Main article: History of Russian military ranks
• Main article:

  Ranks and rank insignia of the Russian armed forces until 1917

Different material colours of the shoulder board insignia denote various regiments. In this case, the 1st Neva Infantry Regiment.^[48]

Infantry	Artillery	Cavalry	Cossack host	Shoulder strap, epaulette
Ryadovye ( Enlisted personnel )
Ryadovoy (en: Private)	Cannoneer	Ryadovoy, Hussar, Dragoon, Uhlan, Cuirassier	Cossack
Yefeytor (Gefreiter)			Prikasny
Unter-ofitsery (Under Officers/NCOs)
Mladshy unter-ofitser (Junior Corporal)	Mladshy feyerverker (Junior Feuerwerker)	Mladshy unter-ofitser	Mladshy uryadnik (Junior Cossack Corporal)
Starshy unter-ofitser (Senior Corporal)	Starshy feyerverker (Senor Feuerwerker)	Starshy unter-ofitser	Starshy uryadnik (Senior Cossack Corporal)
Feldfebel (Sergeant)		Vakhmistr (Wachtmeister)
Podpraporshchik (Junior Praporshchik)			Podkhorunzhy (Junior Cossack Praporshchik)
Zauryad-praporshchik (Deputy Praporshchik)			—
Ober-ofitsery (Upper officers, senior officer corps)
Praporshchik (wartime only)			—
Podporuchik (Junior Lieutenant)		Kornet (Cornet)	Khorunzhy ( Chorąży )
Poruchik (Lieutenant)			Sotnik (Cossack Lieutenant)
Shtabs-kapitan (Staff Captain)		Shtabs-rotmistr (Stabs rittmeister )	Podyesaul (Junior Yesaul)
Kapitan (Captain) (after 1884 it was upgraded to level VIII, and became a staff officer rank)		Rotmistr ( Rittmeister ) (after 1884 it was upgraded to level VIII, and became a staff officer rank)	Ysaul (after 1884, it was upgraded to the VIII, and became a staff officer rank)
Shtab-Ofitsery ( Staff officer ranks)
Mayor (Major) (abolished in 1884)			Voyskovay starshina (until 1884)
Podpolkovnik (Lieutenant colonel)			Podpolkovnik (until 1884)
			Voyskovay starshina (from 1885) (Lieutenant colonel)
Polkovnik (Colonel)
General officers
General-major (Major general)
General-leytenant (Lieutenant general)
General ot infanterii (General of the infantry)	General ot artillerii (General of the artillery)	General ot kavalrii (General of the cavalry)
General-feldmarshal ( General field marshal )

• 
  Orenburg Cadet Corps
• 
  15th Rifle His Majesty King Nikola I Regiment
• 
  5th Kargolovsk Dragoon Regiment
• 
  Orlov Cadet Corps