History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent
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The
Early history
Neolithic
In the period of the Neolithic Revolution, roughly 8000-4000 BCE,[11] Agro pastoralism in India included threshing, planting crops in rows and storing grain in granaries.[3][12] Barley —either of two or of six rows— and wheat cultivation—along with the rearing of cattle, sheep and goat—was visible in Mehrgarh by 8000-6000 BCE.[3][13]
According to Gangal et al. (2014), there is strong archeological and geographical evidence that neolithic farming spread from the Near East into north-west India.[14][15][note 1] Yet, Jean-Francois Jarrige argues for an independent origin of Mehrgarh. Jarrige notes the similarities between Neolithic sites from eastern Mesopotamia and the western Indus valley, which are evidence of a "cultural continuum" between those sites. Nevertheless, Jarrige concludes that Mehrgarh has an earlier local background," and is not a "'backwater' of the Neolithic culture of the Near East."[30] Singh et al. (2016) investigated the distribution of J2a-M410 and J2b-M102 in South Asia, which "suggested a complex scenario that cannot be explained by a single wave of agricultural expansion from Near East to South Asia,"[15] but also note that "regardless of the complexity of dispersal, NW region appears to be the corridor for entry of these haplogroups into India."[15]
By the 5th millennium BCE agricultural communities became widespread in Kashmir.[3] Zaheer Baber (1996) writes that 'the first evidence of cultivation of cotton had already developed'.[13] Cotton was cultivated by the 5th millennium BCE-4th millennium BCE.[31] The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practiced till the modern Industrialisation of India.[32]
A variety of tropical fruits such as
Wild rice cultivation appeared in the
Several wild cereals, including rice, grew in the
Vindhyan Hills, and rice cultivation, at sites such as Chopani-Mando and Mahagara, may have been underway as early as 7000 BP. The relative isolation of this area and the early development of rice farming imply that it was developed indigenously...Chopin-Mando and Mahagara are located on the upper reaches of the Ganges drainage system and it is likely that migrants from this area spread rice farming down the Ganges valley into the fertile plains of Bengal, and beyond into south-east Asia.
Indus Valley Civilization
Outside the Indus Valley area of influence there are 2 regions with distinct agricultures dating back to around 2800-1500 BCE. These are the
Iron Age India (1500 BCE – 200 CE)
Gupta (2004) finds it likely that summer monsoons may have been longer and may have contained moisture in excess than required for normal food production. holds that:
In the later
...and animal husbandry. Farmers plowed the soil...broadcast seeds, and used a certain sequence of cropping and fallowing. Cow dung provided fertilizer, and irrigation was practiced...
The
India has many huge mountains which abound in fruit-trees of every kind, and many vast plains of great fertility. . . . The greater part of the soil, moreover, is under irrigation, and consequently bears two crops in the course of the year. . . . In addition to cereals, there grows throughout India much
pulseof different sorts, and rice also, and what is called bosporum [Indian millet]. . . . Since there is a double rainfall [i.e., the two monsoons] in the course of each year . . . the inhabitants of India almost always gather in two harvests annually.
Early Common Era – High Middle Ages (200–1200 CE)
The
Noboru Karashima's research of the agrarian society in South India during the Chola Empire (875–1279) reveals that during the Chola rule land was transferred and collective holding of land by a group of people slowly gave way to individual plots of land, each with their own irrigation system.[50] The growth of individual disposition of farming property may have led to a decrease in areas of dry cultivation.[8] The Cholas also had bureaucrats which oversaw the distribution of water—-particularly the distribution of water by tank-and-channel networks to the drier areas.[8]
Late Middle Ages (1200–1526 CE)
The construction of water works and aspects of water technology in Medieval India is described in Arabic and Persian works.[51] The diffusion of Indian and Persian irrigation technologies gave rise to an irrigation systems which brought about economic growth and growth of material culture.[51] Agricultural 'zones' were broadly divided into those producing rice, wheat or millets.[5] Rice production continued to dominate Gujarat and wheat dominated north and central India.[5]
Mughal Era (1526–1757 CE)
Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire,[53] during which India's population growth accelerated.[54] A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco.[53]
Land management was particularly strong during the regime of
The Mughal administration emphasized agrarian reform, which began under the Sur emperor Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organized in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit, with promotions based on performance.[56] The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.[53]
A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt. He replaced the
Indian agriculture was advanced compared to Europe at the time, such as the common use of the
The History of Agriculture by Britannica Educational Publishing[62] details the many crops introduced to India during this period of extensive global discourse:
Cultivation of
citrus fruitswas greatly improved.
According to evidence cited by the economic historians
Colonial British Era (1757–1947 CE)
Few Indian commercial crops—such as Cotton, indigo, opium, wheat, and rice—made it to the global market under the
Agricultural performance in the interwar period (1918–1939) was dismal. From 1891 to 1946, the annual growth rate of all crop output was 0.4 %, and food-grain output was practically stagnant. There were significant regional and intercrop differences, however, nonfood crops doing better than food crops. Among food crops, by far the most important source of stagnation was rice. Bengal had below-average growth rates in both food and nonfood crop output, whereas Punjab and Madras were the least stagnant regions. In the interwar period, population growth accelerated while food output decelerated, leading to declining availability of food per head. The crisis was most acute in Bengal, where food output declined at an annual rate of about 0.7 % from 1921 to 1946, when population grew at an annual rate of about 1 %.
The British regime in India did supply the irrigation works but rarely on the scale required. Community effort and private investment soared as market for irrigation developed. Agricultural prices of some commodities rose to about three times between 1870 and 1920.[66]
During the time period of the Mughals in the Indian Subcontinent, agriculture flourished so much that the population increased, as well. On the other hand, during British rule, not only did the population decrease drastically due to famine, etc. but homes were limited to having lesser and lesser children. Now the point has come, where families think if they have more than two children they might not get fed, whereas, before the poorest of class members used to have 7-8 children and everyone used to get fed by the agriculture provided.
A rich source of the state of Indian agriculture in the early British era is a report prepared by a British engineer, Thomas Barnard, and his Indian guide, Raja Chengalvaraya Mudaliar, around 1774. This report contains data of agricultural production in about 800 villages in the area around Chennai in the years 1762 to 1766. This report is available in Tamil in the form of palm leaf manuscripts at Thanjavur Tamil University, and in English in the Tamil Nadu State Archives. A series of articles in The Hindu newspaper in the early 1990s authored by researchers at The Centre for Policy Studies[67] led by Shri Dharampal highlight the impressive production statistics of Indian farmers of that era.
Republic of India (1947 CE onwards)
Special programmes were undertaken to improve food and cash crops supply.[68] The Grow More Food Campaign (1940s) and the Integrated
Production Programme (1950s) focused on food and cash crops supply respectively.
Due to the growth and prosperity that followed India's economic reforms a strong middle class emerged as the main consumer of fruits, dairy, fish, meat and vegetables—a marked shift from the earlier staple based consumption.[73] Since 1991, changing consumption patterns led to a 'revolution' in 'high crop value' agriculture while the need for cereals is experienced a decline.[73] The per capita consumption of cereals declined from 192 to 152 kilograms from 1977 to 1999 while the consumption of fruits increased by 553%, vegetables by 167%, dairy products by 105%, and non-vegetarian products by 85% in India's rural areas alone.[74] Urban areas experienced a similar increase.[74]
Agricultural exports continued to grow at well over 10.1% annually through the 1990s.[75] Contract farming—which requires the farmers to produce crops for a company under contract—and high value agricultural product increased.[76] Contract farming led to a decrease in transaction costs while the contract farmers made more profit compared to the non-contract workforce.[77] However, small landholding continued to create problems for India's farmers as the limited land resulted in limited produce and limited profits.[75]
The 1991 reforms also contributed to a rise in suicides by indebted farmers in India following crop failures (e.g. Bt cotton). Various studies identify the important factors as the withdrawal of government support, insufficient or risky credit systems, the difficulty of farming semi-arid regions, poor agricultural income, absence of alternative income opportunities, a downturn in the urban economy which forced non-farmers into farming, and the absence of suitable counseling services.[78][79][80]
Since independence, India has become one of the largest producers of wheat, edible oil, potato, spices, rubber, tea, fishing, fruits, and vegetables in the world.
The contribution of agriculture in employing India's male workforce decreased from 75.9% in 1961 to 60% in 1999–2000.[82] Dev (2006) holds that 'there were about 45 million agricultural labor households in the country in 1999–2000.'[83] These households recorded the highest incidence of poverty in India from 1993 to 2000.[84] The green revolution introduced high yielding varieties of crops which also increased the usage of fertilisers and pesticides.[85] About 90% of the pesticide usage in India is accounted for by DDT and Lindane (BHC/HCH).[86] There has been a shift to organic agriculture particularly for exported commodities.[87]
During 2003–04, agriculture accounted for 22% of India's
See also
- Early Indians
- Agriculture in India
- Fishing in India
- Livestock in India
- Forestry in India
Notes
- ^ Gangal et al. (2014):[14] "There are several lines of evidence that support the idea of connection between the Neolithic in the Near East and in the Indian subcontinent. The prehistoric site of Mehrgarh in Baluchistan (modern Pakistan) is the earliest Neolithic site in the north-west Indian subcontinent, dated as early as 8500 BCE.[16]
Neolithic domesticated crops in Mehrgarh include more than 90% barley and a small amount of wheat. There is good evidence for the local domestication of barley and the zebu cattle at Mehrgarh,[17][18] but the wheat varieties are suggested to be of Near-Eastern origin, as the modern distribution of wild varieties of wheat is limited to Northern Levant and Southern Turkey.[19] A detailed satellite map study of a few archaeological sites in the Baluchistan and Khybar Pakhtunkhwa regions also suggests similarities in early phases of farming with sites in Western Asia.[20] Pottery prepared by sequential slab construction, circular fire pits filled with burnt pebbles, and large granaries are common to both Mehrgarh and many Mesopotamian sites.[21] The postures of the skeletal remains in graves at Mehrgarh bear strong resemblance to those at Ali Kosh in the Zagros Mountains of southern Iran.[17] Clay figurines found in Mehrgarh resemble those discovered at Zaghe on the Qazvin plain south of the Elburz range in Iran (the 7th millennium BCE) and Jeitun in Turkmenistan (the 6th millennium BCE).[22] Strong arguments have been made for the Near-Eastern origin of some domesticated plants and herd animals at Jeitun in Turkmenistan.[23]
The Near East is separated from the Indus Valley by the arid plateaus, ridges and deserts of Iran and Afghanistan, where rainfall agriculture is possible only in the foothills and cul-de-sac valleys.Great Khorasan Road) was apparently functioning by 4,000 BCE and numerous prehistoric sites are located along it, whose assemblages are dominated by the Cheshmeh-Ali (Tehran Plain) ceramic technology, forms and designs.[24] Striking similarities in figurines and pottery styles, and mud-brick shapes, between widely separated early Neolithic sites in the Zagros Mountains of north-western Iran (Jarmo and Sarab), the Deh Luran Plain in southwestern Iran (Tappeh Ali Kosh and Chogha Sefid), Susiana (Chogha Bonut and Chogha Mish), the Iranian Central Plateau (Tappeh-Sang-e Chakhmaq), and Turkmenistan (Jeitun) suggest a common incipient culture.[26] The Neolithic dispersal across South Asia plausibly involved migration of the population ([27] and , pp. 231–233[23]). This possibility is also supported by Y-chromosome and mtDNA analyses."[28][29]
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