Indian astronomy

History

Some of the earliest forms of astronomy can be dated to the period of

Greek astronomical ideas began to enter India in the 4th century BCE following the conquests of Alexander the Great.^[6][7][8][9] By the early centuries of the Common Era, Indo-Greek influence on the astronomical tradition is visible, with texts such as the Yavanajataka^[6] and Romaka Siddhanta.^[9] Later astronomers mention the existence of various siddhantas during this period, among them a text known as the

.

The classical era of Indian astronomy begins in the late Gupta era, in the 5th to 6th centuries. The

epicyclic models of planetary motion, and planetary longitude corrections for various terrestrial locations.^[18]

Calendars

Further information: Hindu calendar

See also: Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar

The divisions of the year were on the basis of religious rites and seasons (

shishir).^[19]

In the Vedānga Jyotiṣa, the year begins with the winter solstice.[20] Hindu calendars have several eras:

• The Hindu calendar, counting from the start of the Kali Yuga, has its epoch on 18 February 3102 BCE Julian (23 January 3102 BCE Gregorian).
• The Vikram Samvat calendar, introduced about the 12th century, counts from 56 to 57 BCE.
• The "Saka Era", used in some Hindu calendars and in the Indian national calendar, has its epoch near the vernal equinox of year 78.
• The
  Saptarishi calendar traditionally has its epoch at 3076 BCE.^[21]

J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008) reports on the calendars in India:

The oldest system, in many respects the basis of the classical one, is known from texts of about 1000 BCE. It divides an approximate solar year of 360 days into 12 lunar months of 27 (according to the early Vedic text Taittirīya Saṃhitā 4.4.10.1–3) or 28 (according to the

constellations (nakṣatra) each measure an arc of 13° 20′ of the ecliptic circle. The positions of the Moon were directly observable, and those of the Sun inferred from the Moon's position at Full Moon, when the Sun is on the opposite side of the Moon. The position of the Sun at midnight was calculated from the nakṣatra that culminated on the meridian at that time, the Sun then being in opposition to that nakṣatra.^[19]

Astronomers

• Ṛtús are also described as yugāṃśas (or parts of the yuga, i.e. conjunction cycle).^[23] Tripathi (2008) holds that 'Twenty-seven constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that time.'^[23]
• Islamic astronomy. Its contents are preserved to some extent in the works of Varāhamihira (flourished c. 550), Bhāskara I (flourished c. 629), Brahmagupta (598–c. 665), and others. It is one of the earliest astronomical works to assign the start of each day to midnight."^[18] Aryabhata explicitly mentioned that the Earth rotates about its axis, thereby causing what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars.^[18] In his book, Aryabhata, he suggested that the Earth was sphere, containing a circumference of 24,835 miles (39,967 km).^[24] Aryabhata also mentioned that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the Moon.^[18] Aryabhata's followers were particularly strong in South India, where his principles of the diurnal rotation of the Earth, among others, were followed and a number of secondary works were based on them.^[3]
• Islamic mathematics and astronomy".^[25] In Khandakhadyaka (A Piece Eatable, 665 CE) Brahmagupta reinforced Aryabhata's idea of another day beginning at midnight.^[25] Brahmagupta also calculated the instantaneous motion of a planet, gave correct equations for parallax, and some information related to the computation of eclipses.^[3] His works introduced the Indian concept of mathematics based astronomy into the Arab world.^[3] He also theorized that all bodies with mass are attracted to the Earth.^[26]
• Varāhamihira (505 CE): Varāhamihira was an astronomer and mathematician who studied and Indian astronomy as well as the many principles of Greek, Egyptian, and Roman astronomical sciences.^[27] His Pañcasiddhāntikā is a treatise and compendium drawing from several knowledge systems.^[27]
• Bhāskara I (629 CE): Authored the astronomical works Mahābhāskariya (Great Book of Bhāskara), Laghubhaskariya (Small Book of Bhaskara), and the Aryabhatiyabhashya (629 CE)—a commentary on the Āryabhatīya written by Aryabhata.^[28] Hayashi (2008) writes 'Planetary longitudes, heliacal rising and setting of the planets, conjunctions among the planets and stars, solar and lunar eclipses, and the phases of the Moon are among the topics Bhāskara discusses in his astronomical treatises.'^[28] Bhāskara I's works were followed by Vateśvara (880 CE), who in his eight chapter Vateśvarasiddhānta devised methods for determining the parallax in longitude directly, the motion of the equinoxes and the solstices, and the quadrant of the Sun at any given time.^[3]
• Lalla (8th century CE): Author of the Śiṣyadhīvṛddhida (Treatise Which Expands the Intellect of Students), which corrects several assumptions of Āryabhaṭa.^[29] The Śisyadhīvrddhida of Lalla itself is divided into two parts: Grahādhyāya and Golādhyāya.^[29] Grahādhyāya (Chapter I-XIII) deals with planetary calculations, determination of the mean and true planets, three problems pertaining to diurnal motion of Earth, eclipses, rising and setting of the planets, the various cusps of the Moon, planetary and astral conjunctions, and complementary situations of the Sun and the Moon.^[29] The second part—titled Golādhyāya (chapter XIV–XXII)—deals with graphical representation of planetary motion, astronomical instruments, spherics, and emphasizes on corrections and rejection of flawed principles.^[29] Lalla shows influence of Āryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhāskara I.^[29] His works were followed by later astronomers Śrīpati, Vateśvara, and Bhāskara II.^[29] Lalla also authored the Siddhāntatilaka.^[29]
• Śatānanda (1068–1099 CE): Authored Bhāsvatī (1099) – estimated precession^[30]
• Karaṇakutūhala (Calculation of Astronomical Wonders) and reported on his observations of planetary positions, conjunctions, eclipses, cosmography, geography, mathematics, and astronomical equipment used in his research at the observatory in Ujjain, which he headed^[31]
• Śrīpati (1045 CE): Śrīpati was an astronomer and mathematician who followed the Brahmagupta school and authored the Siddhāntaśekhara (The Crest of Established Doctrines) in 20 chapters, thereby introducing several new concepts, including Moon's second inequality.^[3][32]
• Jain astronomer in the service of Firuz Shah Tughluq.^[33] The 182 verse Yantra-rāja mentions the astrolabe from the first chapter onwards, and also presents a fundamental formula along with a numerical table for drawing an astrolabe although the proof itself has not been detailed.^[33] Longitudes of 32 stars as well as their latitudes have also been mentioned.^[33] Mahendra Sūri also explained the Gnomon, equatorial co-ordinates, and elliptical co-ordinates.^[33] The works of Mahendra Sūri may have influenced later astronomers like Padmanābha (1423 CE)—author of the Yantra-rāja-adhikāra, the first chapter of his Yantra-kirṇāvali.^[33]
• Makarandacarya (1438–1478 CE): Author of the Makaranda sāriṇī
• Drig system, Parameshvara belonged to the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics. Parameshvara was a proponent of observational astronomy in medieval India and he himself had made a series of eclipse observations to verify the accuracy of the computational methods then in use. Based on his eclipse observations, Parameshvara proposed several corrections to the astronomical parameters which had been in use since the times of Aryabhata
  .
• Tantrasangraha, revised Aryabhata's model for the planets Mercury and Venus. His equation of the centre for these planets remained the most accurate until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century.^[34] Nilakantha Somayaji, in his Āryabhaṭīyabhāṣya, a commentary on Āryabhaṭa's Āryabhaṭīya, developed his own computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics who followed him accepted his planetary model.^[34][35] He also authored a treatise titled Jyotirmīmāṁsā
  stressing the necessity and importance of astronomical observations to obtain correct parameters for computations.
• Daśabala (fl. 1055–1058 CE): Author of Cintāmanṇisāraṇikā (1055) and the Karaṇakamalamārtaṇḍa (1058).
• Acyuta Piṣāraṭi (1550–1621 CE): Sphuṭanirṇaya (Determination of True Planets) details an elliptical correction to existing notions.^[36] Sphuṭanirṇaya was later expanded to Rāśigolasphutānīti (True Longitude Computation of the Sphere of the Zodiac).^[36] Another work, Karanottama deals with eclipses, complementary relationship between the Sun and the Moon, and 'the derivation of the mean and true planets'.^[36] In Uparāgakriyākrama (Method of Computing Eclipses), Acyuta Piṣāraṭi suggests improvements in methods of calculation of eclipses.^[36]
• Dinakara (1550 CE): Author of a popular work, the Candrārkī with 33 verses to produce calendars, calculate lunar, solar, and star positions.^[37][38]
• Mathurānātha Śarman (1609 CE): Author of Ravisiddhāntamañjarī or Sūryasiddhāntamañjarī

Instruments used

Jantar Mantar (Jaipur)

observatory.

Yantra Mandir (completed by 1743 CE), Delhi

.

Hindu-Arabic numerals

.

Among the devices used for astronomy was

Bhaskara II (1114–1185 CE).^[39] This device could vary from a simple stick to V-shaped staffs designed specifically for determining angles with the help of a calibrated scale.^[39] The clepsydra (Ghatī-yantra) was used in India for astronomical purposes until recent times.^[39] Ōhashi (2008) notes that: "Several astronomers also described water-driven instruments such as the model of fighting sheep."^[39]

The

Parameśvara.^[40] On the subject of the usage of the armillary sphere in India, Ōhashi (2008) writes: "The Indian armillary sphere (gola-yantra) was based on equatorial coordinates, unlike the Greek armillary sphere, which was based on ecliptical coordinates, although the Indian armillary sphere also had an ecliptical hoop. Probably, the celestial coordinates of the junction stars of the lunar mansions were determined by the armillary sphere since the seventh century or so. There was also a celestial globe rotated by flowing water."^[39]

An instrument invented by the mathematician and astronomer Bhaskara II (1114–1185 CE) consisted of a rectangular board with a pin and an index arm.

Firuz Shah Tughluq (1309–1388 CE)—the astrolabe was further mentioned by Padmanābha (1423 CE) and Rāmacandra (1428 CE) as its use grew in India.^[39]

Invented by Padmanābha, a nocturnal polar rotation instrument consisted of a rectangular board with a slit and a set of pointers with concentric graduated circles.[39] Time and other astronomical quantities could be calculated by adjusting the slit to the directions of α and β Ursa Minor.^[39] Ōhashi (2008) further explains that: "Its backside was made as a quadrant with a plumb and an index arm. Thirty parallel lines were drawn inside the quadrant, and trigonometrical calculations were done graphically. After determining the sun's altitude with the help of the plumb, time was calculated graphically with the help of the index arm."^[39]

Ōhashi (2008) reports on the observatories constructed by

Jai Singh II of Amber

:

The Mahārāja of Jaipur,

Banaras are. There are several huge instruments based on Hindu and Islamic astronomy. For example, the samrāt.-yantra (emperor instrument) is a huge sundial which consists of a triangular gnomon wall and a pair of quadrants toward the east and west of the gnomon wall. Time has been graduated on the quadrants.^[39]

The seamless

Jagatjit Singh Bahadur's reign. 21 such globes were produced, and these remain the only examples of seamless metal globes. These Mughal metallurgists developed the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes.^[41]

International discourse

sun dial, Ai-Khanoum

, Afghanistan 3rd–2nd century BCE.

Indian and Greek astronomy

According to David Pingree, there are a number of Indian astronomical texts dated to the sixth century CE or later with a high degree of certainty. There is substantial similarity between these and pre-Ptolemaic Greek astronomy.^[42] Pingree believes that these similarities suggest a Greek origin for certain aspects of Indian astronomy. One of the direct proofs for this approach is the fact quoted that many Sanskrit words related to astronomy, astrology and calendar are either direct phonetical borrowings from the Greek language, or translations, assuming complex ideas, like the names of the days of the week which presuppose a relation between those days, planets (including Sun and Moon) and gods.^{[citation needed]}

With the rise of

Hellenistic astronomy is known to have been practised near India in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai-Khanoum from the 3rd century BCE. Various sun-dials, including an equatorial sundial adjusted to the latitude of Ujjain have been found in archaeological excavations there.^[44]

Numerous interactions with the

Mauryan Empire, and the later expansion of the Indo-Greeks into India suggest that transmission of Greek astronomical ideas to India occurred during this period.^[45]

The Greek concept of a spherical Earth surrounded by the spheres of planets, further influenced the astronomers like

Varahamihira and Brahmagupta.^[43][46]

Several Greco-Roman astrological treatises are also known to have been exported to India during the first few centuries of the present era. The Yavanajataka is a Sanskrit text of the 3rd century CE on Greek horoscopy and mathematical astronomy.^[6] Rudradaman's capital at Ujjain "became the Greenwich of Indian astronomers and the Arin of the Arabic and Latin astronomical treatises; for it was he and his successors who encouraged the introduction of Greek horoscopy and astronomy into India."^[47]

Later in the 6th century, the Romaka Siddhanta ("Doctrine of the Romans"), and the Paulisa Siddhanta ("Doctrine of Paul") were considered as two of the five main astrological treatises, which were compiled by Varāhamihira in his Pañca-siddhāntikā ("Five Treatises"), a compendium of Greek, Egyptian, Roman and Indian astronomy.^[48] Varāhamihira goes on to state that "The Greeks, indeed, are foreigners, but with them this science (astronomy) is in a flourishing state."^[9] Another Indian text, the Gargi-Samhita, also similarly compliments the Yavanas (Greeks) noting they, though barbarians, must be respected as seers for their introduction of astronomy in India.^[9]

Indian and Chinese astronomy

Indian astronomy reached China with the expansion of

Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) when a number of Chinese scholars—such as Yi Xing— were versed both in Indian and Chinese astronomy.^[49] A system of Indian astronomy was recorded in China as Jiuzhi-li (718 CE), the author of which was an Indian by the name of Qutan Xida—a translation of Devanagari Gotama Siddha—the director of the Tang dynasty's national astronomical observatory.^[49]

Fragments of texts during this period indicate that

Muhammad al-Fazari's Great Sindhind (based on the Surya Siddhanta and the works of Brahmagupta), was translated into Latin in 1126 and was influential at the time.^[52]

Indian and Islamic astronomy

Many Indian works on astronomy and astrology were translated into Middle Persian in Gundeshapur the Sasanian Empire and later translated from Middle Persian into Arabic.^{[citation needed]}

In the 17th century, the

Zij-i-Sultani. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.^[53][54]

Indian astronomy and Europe

Some scholars have suggested that knowledge of the results of the

Arabia and Europe. The existence of circumstantial evidence^[56] such as communication routes and a suitable chronology certainly make such a transmission a possibility. However, there is no direct evidence by way of relevant manuscripts that such a transmission took place.^[55]

In the early 18th century,

Yantra Mandir observatories, who had bought back the astronomical tables compiled by Philippe de La Hire in 1702. After examining La Hire's work, Jai Singh concluded that the observational techniques and instruments used in European astronomy were inferior to those used in India at the time – it is uncertain whether he was aware of the Copernican Revolution via the Jesuits.^[57] He did, however, employ the use of telescopes

. In his Zij-i Muhammad Shahi, he states: "telescopes were constructed in my kingdom and using them a number of observations were carried out".[58]

Following the arrival of the British East India Company in the 18th century, the Hindu and Islamic traditions were slowly displaced by European astronomy, though there were attempts at harmonising these traditions. The Indian scholar Mir Muhammad Hussain had travelled to England in 1774 to study Western science and, on his return to India in 1777, he wrote a Persian treatise on astronomy. He wrote about the heliocentric model, and argued that there exists an infinite number of universes (awalim), each with their own planets and stars, and that this demonstrates the omnipotence of God, who is not confined to a single universe. Hussain's idea of a universe resembles the modern concept of a galaxy, thus his view corresponds to the modern view that the universe consists of billions of galaxies, each one consisting of billions of stars.^[59] The last known Zij treatise was the Zij-i Bahadurkhani, written in 1838 by the Indian astronomer Ghulam Hussain Jaunpuri (1760–1862) and printed in 1855, dedicated to Bahadur Khan. The treatise incorporated the heliocentric system into the Zij tradition.^[60]

Schools and organisations of astronomy

Jantar Mantar

Further information: Jantar Mantar

See also: Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

Jantar (means yantra, machine); mantar (means calculate).

Jai Singh II in the 18th century took great interest in science and astronomy. He made various Jantar Mantars in Jaipur, Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi and Mathura. The Jaipur instance has 19 different astronomical calculators. These comprise live and forward-calculating astronomical clocks (calculators) for days, eclipses, visibility of key constellations which are not year-round northern polar ones thus principally but not exclusively those of the zodiac. Astronomers

abroad were invited and admired complexity of certain devices.

Yantra Mandir (completed by 1743 CE), Delhi

.

As brass time-calculators are imperfect, and to help in their precise re-setting so as to match true locally experienced time, there remains equally his Samrat Yantra, the largest sundial in the world. It divides each daylit hour as to solar 15-minute, 1-minute and 6-second subunits.^[61] Other notable include:

• Nadivalaya yantra^[62]
• Rama Yantra^[63]
• Daksinottara Bhitti^[64]
• Unnatamsha Yantra^[65]
• Jai Prakash yantra^[66]

Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics

Further information: Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics

Models of the Kerala school (active 1380 to 1632) involved higher order polynomials and other cutting-edge algebra; many neatly were put to use, principally for predicting motions and alignments within the Solar System.^[67][68][69]

20th and 21st Century

Astronomers

During 1920, astronomers like

Saha ionisation equation. Homi J. Bhaba and Vikram Sarabhai made significant contributions.^[70] A. P. J. Abdul Kalam also known as Missile Man of India assisted in development and research for the Defence Research and Development Organisation and the Indian Space Research Organisation's (ISRO) civilian space programme and launch vehicle technology.^[71][72][73]

Organizations

Bhaba established the

SUPARCO in Pakistan^[78]

and others were founded shortly after.

Research

Rocket launching stations were established and satellites were launched for research in astronomy.[a] ISRO and the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research have operated a balloon launch base at Hyderabad where

Bacillus isronensis and Bacillus aryabhattai in recognition of ISRO's contribution and astronomer Aryabhata.^[b][88]

pulsars, binary star systems, and supermassive black holes located at the centre of the galaxy.^[89] A gamma-ray burst was detected by Astrosat in January 2017.^[90] It also captured a rare phenomenon of a 6 billion year old blue straggler feeding off and sucking out mass and energy out of a bigger star.^[91] In July 2018, it captured an image of the, 800 million light years away, Abell 2256 galaxy cluster.^[92] In 2019, it detected a rare X-ray outburst in a Be/X-ray binary system RX J0209.6-7427.^[93][94][95]

Chandrayaan-3 is the third mission in the Chandrayaan programme, a series of lunar-exploration missions developed by the ISRO.^[96] It objectivized to conduct soft landing on Lunar south pole, observing & demonstrating the rover's driving capabilities on the Moon and conducting experiments on the materials available on the lunar surface to better understand the composition of the Moon.^[97] The launch was done on 14 July 2023 at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre. The lander and rover successfully landed at the south pole of moon on 23 August 2023.^[98]

Animation of Chandrayaan-3

Around the Earth – Orbit raising phase

Around the Earth

Around the Moon

   Chandrayaan-3's Path ·    Earth ·    Moon

See also

• Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar
• Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
• Buddhist cosmology
• Chinese astronomy
• Hindu calendar
• Hindu chronology
• Hindu cosmology
• History of astronomy
• Jain cosmology
• List of numbers in Hindu scriptures
• Nirayana system

Notes

1. ^ Thumba Equatorial rocket launching station were made where sounding rockets are fired.^[79][80] Aryabhata was first satellite launched in orbit through Soviet Interkosmos program.^[81][75] Various space satellites like Vikas, RS-1, etc were developed soon after.^[82][83][84]
2. ^ The third named Janibacter hoylei after astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.

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Further reading

• Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and culture, Monograph series, Volume 3. Mathematics, Astronomy and Biology in Indian Tradition edited by D. P. Chattopadhyaya and Ravinder Kumar
• Brennand, William (1896), Hindu Astronomy, Chas.Straker & Sons, London
• Maunder, E. Walter (1899), The Indian Eclipse 1898, Hazell Watson and Viney Ltd., London
• Kak, Subhash. Birth and early development of Indian astronomy. Kluwer, 2000.
• Kak, S. (2000). The astronomical code of the R̥gveda. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
• Kak, Subhash C. "The astronomy of the age of geometric altars."
  Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society
  36 (1995): 385.
• Kak, Subhash C. "Knowledge of planets in the third millennium BC."
  Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society
  37 (1996): 709.
• Kak, S. C. (1 January 1993). Astronomy of the vedic altars. Vistas in Astronomy: Part 1, 36, 117–140.
• Kak, Subhash C. "Archaeoastronomy and literature." Current Science 73.7 (1997): 624–627.