History of the oil shale industry

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Production of oil shale in millions of metric tons, from 1880 to 2010. Source: Pierre Allix, Alan K. Burnham.[1]

The history of the oil shale industry started in ancient times. The modern industrial use of oil shale for oil extraction dates to the mid-19th century and started growing just before World War I because of the mass production of automobiles and trucks and the supposed shortage of gasoline for transportation needs. Between the World Wars oil shale projects were begun in several countries.[2]

After World War II, the oil shale industry declined due to increased accessibility to conventional crude oil.[a] As of 2010, oil shale was commercially used in Estonia, China and Brazil, while several countries are considering to start or restart commercial use of oil shale.[2]

Early history

Humans have used oil shale as a fuel since prehistoric times, since it generally burns without any processing.

Britons of the Iron Age used to polish and form oil shale into ornaments.[4] Around 3000 BC, "rock oil" was used in Mesopotamia for road construction and making architectural adhesives.[5]

As a decorative material, oil shale was also used over the Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Umayyad and Abbasid periods to decorate mosaics and floors of the palaces, churches and mosques.[6][7]

caulking ships, Mongols used to cap their arrows with flaming oil shale.[5] In the 10th century, the Arabian physician Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue the Younger) described a method of extraction of oil from "some kind of bituminous shale".[8] In the early 14th century, the first use of shale oil was recorded in Switzerland and Austria.[9][10] In 1350, a knight Berthold von Ebenhausen was awarded a right to exploit the Seefeld oil shale in Tyrol. Oil shale was used for production of shale oil using an early retorting method of heating the crushed oil shale put in crucibles.[11] The healing properties of a mineral oil distilled from oil shale were noted in 1596 by the personal physician of the Duke of Württemberg Frederick I.[5]

In Skåne, the Swedish

alum shale dating from the Cambrian and Ordovician periods was used for extracting potassium aluminium sulfate by roasting it over fire as early as 1637.[12] In Italy, shale oil was used to light the streets of Modena at the turn of the 17th century.[5] The British Crown granted a patent in 1694 to three persons named Martin Eele, Thomas Hancock and William Portlock who had "found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tarr, and oyle out of a sort of stone."[5][9][13][14] Shale oil was produced by extracting Shropshire oil shale.[15] Later sold as Betton's British Oil, the distilled product was said to have been "tried by divers persons in Aches and Pains with much benefit."[16] In 1781, Archibald Cochrane, 9th Earl of Dundonald, registered a patent for an extraction process to produce tar, pitch and oil from coal and bituminous shales, using masonry retorts and wooden condensers.[17]

In Russia

Volga Region.[19] In the 1830s Germain Henri Hess investigated Baltic oil shales with resulting determination of the semicoking process product yields.[18]

Oil shale in Australia was referred to for the first time by François Péron, et al., in Voyage de Découverte aux Terres Australes[20] which was published in Paris in 1807, describing what was probably torbanite from the Newnes deposit.[21]

Start of the modern industry

In this vertical retort, oil shale is processed in a cast iron vessel which is broader at the bottom and narrow at the top. Lines on the left point to and describe its major components. From bottom to top, they consist of a water seal, coal-fired furnaces flanking a cast iron retort, a hopper receiving the shale, and a valve system. Arrows and text on the right show process inputs and outputs: steam is injected near the bottom of the retort; near its top, oil vapors and gases are drawn off and collected; a wheeled container delivers oil shale to the hopper.
Alexander C. Kirk's retort, used in the mid-to-late 19th century, was one of the first vertical oil shale retorts. Its design is typical of retorts used in the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century.[22]
James "Paraffin" Young
.
The remains of a shale bing, Drumshoreland, near Pumpherston.

The modern industrial use of oil shale for oil extraction started in France, where oil shale commercial mining began in

Broxburn, West Lothian.[17] After the expiry of Young's patent in 1862 many small shale oil works were opened.[30] By 1865, there were about 120 shale oil works in Scotland.[14] In 1866 Young established Young's Paraffin Light and Mineral Oil Company at Addiewell. Other notable shale oil companies were the Broxburn Oil Company established in 1878 and the Pumpherston Oil Company established in 1892.[30]

In the United States early oil-shale industry concentrated on the eastern oil shale deposits.

Drake Oil Well at Titusville, Pennsylvania in 1859, put the American oil shale industry out of business by 1860.[33][34] The largest deposit, Green River Formation, was accidentally discovered in 1874 but not utilized until beginning of the 20th century.[14]

In 1857, oil shale industry started in Germany.[35] In Canada, the Craigleith Shale Oil Works started to retort oil shale of the Ordovician Whitby Formation near Collingwood, Ontario, on Lake Huron in 1859.[36][37] In 1861 it became economically infeasible due to the discovery of petroleum nearby.[33]

In Australia, the first oil shale mine was commenced in 1865 at American Creek, Mount Kembla in New South Wales. At the same year, the first shale oil was produced by the Pioneer Kerosene Works at American Creek.[21][38] A number of other mines and shale oil plants were opened in New South Wales; however, in the beginning of the 20th century they were closed due to the import of cheaper crude oil.[39]

In Austria, oil shale was used in 1840–1882 for production of

asphalt mastic, naphtha and asphalt tar.[40] In Sweden, the first attempt to extract oil from alum shale was made in 1864.[41] Shale oil production started in the 1890s and lasted few years.[41][42] In Brazil, oil shale was first exploited in 1884 in Bahia.[43] In 1900 shale oil extraction industry was initiated also in New Zealand.[33]

In 1894, the Pumpherston retort (also known as the Bryson retort) was invented, which is considered as a separation of the oil shale industry from the coal industry.[44] It stayed in use until 1938.[45]

Operations during the 19th century focused on the production of

lamp oil, and paraffin wax; these products helped supply the growing demand for lighting that arose during the Industrial Revolution.[46] Fuel oil, lubricating oil and grease, and ammonium sulfate were also produced.[47]

Beginning of the 20th century

Oil retort at Kilve, West Somerset, England
Pumpherston oil shale retorts, Scotland, 1922

The oil shale industry expanded immediately before World War I because of limited access to

conventional petroleum resources and the mass production of automobiles and trucks, which accompanied an increase in gasoline consumption.[48] Oil shale production in Scotland peaked in 1910–1912 with more than three million tonnes.[14] That time Scottish shale oil industry contributed 2% of global oil production.[30] After that, production declined with exception of the period of World War II.[14] In 1919, five survived shale oil companies (Young's Paraffin Light & Mineral Oil Company, Broxburn Oil Company, Pumpherston Shale Oil Company, Oakbank Oil Company, and James Ross & Company Philpstoun Oil Works), were merged into Scottish Oils, a subsidiary of Anglo-Persian Oil Company.[30][49][50][51]

Oil shale retorts, Nevada, 1922

In the United States the government started to create the

N-T-U retort. In 1925, the NTU Company built a test plant at Sherman Cut near Casmalia, California.[54][55] In 1925–1929, the retort was also tested by the United States Bureau of Mines in their Oil Shale Experiment Station at Anvil Point in Rifle, Colorado.[31][54][56]

During

Hejaz Railway.[6][57] In 1915 an oil shale industry was established in Switzerland.[9][33] About 1920, a small mall shale oil extraction plant was opened at Kinnekulle, Sweden.[58] In 1922, a small shale oil extraction plant was opened in Puertollano, Spain.[58]

The year 1916 is considered the beginning of the Estonian oil shale industry.

Julius Pintsch AG.[63][65] In 1924, the Tallinn Power Plant was the first power plant in the world to employ oil shale as its primary fuel.[63][66] In 1939 Estonia mined 1.453 million tonnes of oil shale and produced 181,000 tonnes of shale oil, including 22,500 tonnes of oil that were suitable gasoline equivalents.[67] Almost half of Estonian produced shale oil was exported accounting for 8% of country's total export.[68]

In China, the extraction of oil shale began in 1926 under the Japanese rule.

Ermelo in 1935.[71]

Between the World Wars oil shale projects were also in restarted in Brazil and, for a short time, in Canada.[43]

World War II

In 1939–1945, a shale oil pilot plant operated in Morocco.[72] In Australia shale oil production restarted shortly before World War II. In 1937, the National Oil Proprietary was created. The Glen Davis Shale Oil Works became operational at Glen Davis, New South Wales in 1940 as the main facility in the country.[40][73] In addition, in 1940–1952, three N-T-U retorts were operated at Marangaroo, New South Wales.[54][74][75]

In Sweden, Svenska skifferolje AB (Swedish Shale Oil Company) was formed in 1940.[76] It exploited one of the earliest in-situ processes–underground gasification by electrical energy (Ljungström method)–between 1940 and 1966 at Kvarntorp.[77]

During the

German Army.[78]

In Germany shale oil extraction started at the

Swabian Alb oil shale deposits (Posidonia Shale). However, out of ten planned shale-oil extraction plants only four became operational. The used modified in-situ process was primitive with extremely low oil recovery and it was hard to control.[80]

In 1944 the United States adopted the

Mobil Oil built a pilot shale oil extraction plant and in 1944 Union built an experimental oil shale retort. In 1945 Texaco started shale oil refining study.[31]

1950s–1960s

Anvils Point Research Center in 1970.

Although the Estonian, Russian and Chinese oil shale industries continued to grow after World War II, most other countries abandoned their projects due to high processing costs and the availability of cheaper petroleum.[2][23] The shale oil extraction in Australia was discontinued in 1952 due to ceasing of government funding, in France in 1957, in Britain and South Africa in 1962, and in Sweden and Spain in 1966.[76][81] In Germany only Rohrbach Zement (now part of Holcim) in Dotternhausen continued using oil shale for cement, power and thermal energy production.[82]

After World War II, the

Galoter-type retort were built in the 1950s.[63] Since 1948, Estonian-produced oil shale gas was used in Leningrad (Saint Petersburg) and in northern Estonia cities as a substitute for natural gas.[68][84][85] During the 1950s, unsuccessful tests of oil shale underground gasification were conducted at Kiviõli.[86][87][88] In 1946–1952, uranium compounds were extracted from Graptolitic argillite oil shale in Sillamäe.[89][90][91] In 1949, the Kohtla-Järve Power Plant – the first power plant in the world using pulverized oil shale at an industrial scale – was commissioned in Estonia.[63] The world's two largest oil shale-fired power stations – Balti Power Plant and Eesti Power Plant (known as the Narva Power Plants) – were opened in 1965 and in 1973.[92] In 1965, 510 million cubic metres (18×10^9 cu ft) of oil shale gas were produced and 16.5 million tonnes of oil shale were mined in Estonia.[93]

In Russia, the Slantsy oil shale gas extraction plant was built for supplying oil shale gas to Leningrad and the first unit of the Slantsy oil-shale-fired power plant were commissioned in 1952.[84][94] Since 1955 until 2003, the plant also produced shale oil using Kiviter technology.[95]

In China, the "Refinery No. 2" of Fushun began its production in 1954 and in 1959, the maximum annual shale oil production increased to 780,000 tonnes.

Daqing oil field and increased production of the cheaper conventional petroleum.[97]

In 1951, the

Shell Oil and the Laramie Energy Technology Center.[31]

hydroretorting process.[31] In the early 1960s TOSCO (The Oil Shale Corporation) opened an underground mine and built an experimental plant near Parachute, Colorado. It was closed in 1972 because the price of production exceeded the cost of imported crude oil.[23][105]

1970s–1980s

The Colony oil shale development site in August 1973.

Due to the 1973 oil crisis, the oil shale industry restarted in several countries. The United States Navy and the Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves started evaluations of oil shale's suitability for military fuels, such as jet fuels, marine fuels and a heavy fuel oil. Shale-oil based JP-4 jet fuel was produced until the early 1990s, when it was replaced with kerosene-based JP-8.[98] Seventeen companies led by Standard Oil of Ohio formed the Paraho Development Corporation to develop the Paraho process. Production started in 1974 but was closed in 1978.[34] In 1974 the United States Department of the Interior announced an oil shale leasing program in the oil shale regions of Colorado and Utah. In 1980 the Synthetic Fuels Corporation was established which operated until 1985.[52]

In 1972, the first modified in situ oil shale experiment in the United States was conducted by

White River area.[108][109]

In 1977,

Ashland, Cleveland Cliffs and Sohio exited the Colony Shale Oil Project near Parachute, Colorado. Also, Shell exited the Colony project but continued with in-situ test.[52] The United States oil shale industry collapsed when oil prices fell in the early 1980s. On 2 May 1982, known as "Black Sunday", Exxon cancelled the Colony project due to low oil-prices and increased expenses, laying off more than 2,000 workers.[110][111] In 1986, President Ronald Reagan signed into law the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985 which among other things abolished the United States' Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program.[112] The last oil shale retort in the United States, operated by Unocal Corporation, was closed in 1991.[52]

Because of the success of oil shale-based power generation, Estonian oil shale mining peaked in 1980 at 31.35 million tonnes and oil-shale-based power generation peaked at the same year at 18.9 TWh.

Leningrad Nuclear Power Station.[92]

In Israel, a 0.1 MW pilot oil shale-fired power plant was tested in 1982–1986. A 12.5 MW

fluidised-bed demonstration plant in Mishor Rotem became operational in 1989.[118] In Romania, a 990 MW oil shale-fired power plant at Crivina operated in 1983–1988; however, it was decommissioned due to inefficiency and technical problems.[18][119] In Brazil a 2,400 tons per day semi-works retort (the Irati Profile Plant) was brought on line in 1972, and began limited commercial operation in 1980. A pilot plant that used Petrosix technology started in 1982. It was followed by a demonstration plant in 1984. A commercial retort was brought into service in December 1991.[120][121]

Latest developments

The global oil shale industry started to grow slightly in the mid-1990s although most of the industries were ceased in Russia.[122] Oil-shale-fired power stations in Slantsy and Syzran were converted to use natural gas and fuel oil. Also, shale-oil producer Zavod Slantsy ceased oil-shale processing.[19][122][123] Only Syzran processing plant continued using oil shale for production of ammonium bituminosulfonate.[19]

Existing shale oil extraction plants in Fushun and Moaming, China, were closed in the beginning of 1990s. However, the new shale oil plants in Fushun consist of 220 retorts and the annual capacity has increased up to 350,000 tonnes of shale oil.[124] Several other projects have been developed in various locations.[96] In 2005, China became the largest shale oil producer in the world with an increased number of companies involved in the shale oil extraction.[124]

After decrease in the beginning of 1990s Estonian oil shale production has continuously increased since 1995. Several new processing plants using modified

Galoter technology have been built.[82] In 2006, 90 years after major mining had begun, one billion tonnes were mined.[1][59] Construction of the new 300 MW oil shale-fired power plant began in 2012.[125]

In Australia, the

Paraho II process was opened in September 2011.[126][127]

In the United States, an oil shale development program was initiated in 2003.

Mahogany Research Project in 2013.[132][133][134]

Since 2006 the government of Jordan has signed a number of memorandum of understanding with foreign companies for shale oil production, including with Petrobras, and has signed concession agreements with Shell, Eesti Energia, Karak International Oil and Saudi Arabian International Corporation for Oil Shale Investment.[135][136][137][138] In 2008, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Jordan, the National Electricity Power Company of Jordan, and Eesti Energia signed an agreement to build the 460 MW oil shale-fired Attarat Power Plant.[139][140]

In 2005 Morocco adopted a new strategy and legal framework for oil shale activities.

Total S.A. and San Leon Energy.[72] In April 2010, the 4th Workshop on Regional Cooperation for Clean Utilization of Oil Shale was held in Egypt and later the same month an Oil Shale Cooperation Center was established in Amman by Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, Syria and Turkey.[72] In 2011, Israel closed the Mishor Rotem Power Station.[142]

In 2013, Uzbekistani national oil company Uzbekneftegaz started construction of the shale oil extraction plant on the Sangruntau oil shale deposit.[143]

See also

References and notes

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Notes

  1. Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir

Bibliography

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