Oil shale reserves
Oil shale reserves refers to oil shale resources that are economically recoverable under current economic conditions and technological abilities. Oil shale deposits range from small presently economically unrecoverable to large potentially recoverable resources. Defining oil shale reserves is difficult, as the chemical composition of different oil shales, as well as their kerogen content and extraction technologies, vary significantly. The economic feasibility of oil shale extraction is highly dependent on the price of conventional oil; if the price of crude oil per barrel is less than the production price per barrel of oil shale, it is uneconomic.
As source rocks for most conventional
Many deposits need more exploration to determine their potential as reserves. Well-explored deposits, which could ultimately be classified as reserves, include the
A 2016 conservative estimate set the total world resources of oil shale equivalent to yield of 6.05 trillion barrels (962 billion cubic metres) of shale oil, with the largest resource deposits in the
Oil shale geology
Oil shale formation takes place in a number of depositional settings and has considerable compositional variation. Oil shales can be classified by their composition (
Most oil shale deposits were formed during Middle Cambrian, Early and Middle Ordovician, Late Devonian, Late Jurassic, and Paleogene times through burial by sedimentary loading on top of the algal swamp deposits, resulting in conversion of the organic matter to kerogen by diagenetic processes.[10][11] The largest deposits are found in the remains of large lakes such as the deposits of the Green River Formation of Wyoming and Utah, USA. Oil-shale deposits formed in the shallow seas of continental shelves generally are much thinner than large lake basin deposits.[12]
Definition of reserves
Estimating shale oil reserves is complicated by several factors. Firstly, the amount of kerogen contained in oil shale deposits varies considerably. Secondly, some nations report as reserves the total amount of kerogen in place, including all kerogen regardless of technical or economic constraints; these estimates do not consider the amount of kerogen that may be extracted from identified and assayed oil shale rock using available technology and under given economic conditions. By most definitions, "reserves" refers only to the amount of resource which is technically exploitable and economically feasible under current economic conditions. The term "resources", on the other hand, may refer to all deposits containing kerogen. Thirdly, shale oil extraction technologies are still developing, so the amount of recoverable kerogen can only be estimated.[3][13]
There are a wide variety of extraction methods, which yield significantly different quantities of useful oil. As a result, the estimated amounts of resources and reserves display wide variance. The kerogen content of oil shale formations differs widely, and the economic feasibility of its extraction is highly dependent on international and local costs of oil. Several methods are used to determine the quantity and quality of the products extracted from shale oil. At their best, these methods give an approximate value to its energy potential. One standard method is the
Size of the resource
The size of the oil shale resources is highly dependent on which grade cut-off is used.[14] A 2008 estimate set the total world resources of oil shale at 689 gigatones—equivalent to yield of 4.8 trillion barrels (760 billion cubic metres) of shale oil, with the largest reserves in the United States, which is thought to have 3.7 trillion barrels (590 billion cubic metres), though only a part of it is recoverable.[15] According to the 2010 World Energy Outlook by the International Energy Agency, the world oil shale resources may be equivalent of more than 5 trillion barrels (790 billion cubic metres) of oil in place of which more than 1 trillion barrels (160 billion cubic metres) may be technically recoverable.[1]
A 2016 conservative estimate by the
Geographical allocation
There is no comprehensive overview of oil shale geographical allocation around the world. Around 600 known oil shale deposits are diversely spread throughout the earth, and are found on every continent with the possible exception of Antarctica, which has not yet been explored for oil shale.[3][10] Oil shale resources can be concentrated in a large confined deposit such as the Green River formations, which were formed by a large inland lake. These can be many meters thick but limited by the size of the original lake. They may also resemble the deposits found along the eastern American seaboard, which were the product of a shallow sea, in that they may be quite thin but laterally expansive, covering thousands of square kilometers.
Deposit | Country | Period | In-place shale oil resources (million barrels) | In-place oil shale resources (million metric tons) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Green River Formation | United States | Paleogene | 1,466,000 | 213,000 |
Phosphoria Formation | United States | Permian | 250,000 | 35,775 |
Eastern Devonian | United States | Devonian | 189,000 | 27,000 |
Heath Formation | United States | Early Carboniferous
|
180,000 | 25,578 |
Olenyok Basin | Russia | Cambrian | 167,715 | 24,000 |
Congo | Democratic Republic of Congo | ? | 100,000 | 14,310 |
Irati Formation | Brazil | Permian | 80,000 | 11,448 |
Sicily | Italy | ? | 63,000 | 9,015 |
Tarfaya
|
Morocco | Cretaceous | 42,145 | 6,448 |
Volga Basin | Russia | ? | 31,447 | 4,500 |
Leningrad deposit, Baltic Oil Shale Basin
|
Russia | Ordovician | 25,157 | 3,600 |
Vychegodsk Basin | Russia | Jurassic | 19,580 | 2,800 |
Wadi Maghar | Jordan | Cretaceous | 14,009 | 2,149 |
Graptolitic argillite | Estonia | Ordovician | 12,386 | 1,900 |
Timahdit | Morocco | Cretaceous | 11,236 | 1,719 |
Collingwood Shale | Canada | Ordovician | 12,300 | 1,717 |
Italy | Italy | Triassic | 10,000 | 1,431 |
The table below reports reserves by estimated amount of shale oil. Shale oil refers to synthetic oil obtained by heating organic material (kerogen) contained in oil shale to a temperature which will separate it into oil, combustible gas, and the residual carbon that remains in the
Region | In-place shale oil resources (million barrels) | In-place oil shale resources (million metric tons) | Production in 2008 (thousand metric tons (oil)) |
---|---|---|---|
Africa | 159,243 | 23,317 | - |
Democratic Republic of the Congo | 100,000 | 14,310 | - |
Morocco | 53,381 | 8,167 | - |
Asia | 613,145 | 83,836 | 375 |
China | 354,430 | 47,600 | 375 |
Pakistan | 91,000 | 12,236 | - |
Russia | 167,715 | 24,000 | - |
Europe | 368,156 | 52,845 | 355 |
Russia | 247,883 | 35,470 | - |
Italy | 73,000 | 10,446 | - |
Estonia | 16,286 | 2,494 | 355 |
Middle East | 38,172 | 5,792 | - |
Jordan | 34,172 | 5,242 | - |
North America | 3,722,066 | 539,123 | - |
United States | 3,706,228 | 536,931 | - |
Canada | 15,241 | 2,192 | - |
Oceania | 31,748 | 4,534 | - |
Australia | 31,729 | 4,531 | - |
South America | 82,421 | 11,794 | 157 |
Brazil | 82,000 | 11,734 | 159 |
World total | 4,786,131 | 689,227 | 930 |
Africa
Major oil shale deposits are located in the
Asia
Major oil shale deposits are located in China, which has an estimated total of 32 billion metric tons, of which 4.4 billion metric tons are technically exploitable and economically feasible.[7][5] In 2008, the amount of potential shale oil was estimated at 354 billion barrels (5.63×1010 cubic metres) and in 2016 at 330 billion barrels (5.2×1010 cubic metres).[15][14] The principal Chinese oil shale deposits and production lie in Fushun and Liaoning; others are located in Maoming in Guangdong, Huadian in Jilin, Heilongjiang, and Shandong.[5] Professor Alan R. Carroll of University of Wisconsin–Madison estimates that Upper Permian lacustrine oil shale deposits of northwest China, absent from previous global oil shale assessments, are comparable to the Green River Formation.[17]
In addition to China, major deposits are located in
Europe
The biggest oil shale reserves in Europe are located in Russia (equal to 35.47 billion metric tons of shale oil). Major deposits are located in the Volga-Petchyorsk province and in the Baltic Oil Shale Basin. Other major oil shale deposits in Europe are located in Italy (10.45 billion metric tons of shale oil), Estonia (2.49 billion metric tons of shale oil), France (1 billion metric tons of shale oil), Belarus (1 billion metric tons of shale oil), Sweden (875 million metric tons of shale oil), Ukraine (600 million metric tons of shale oil) and the United Kingdom (500 million metric tons of shale oil). There are oil shale reserves also in Germany, Luxembourg, Spain, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Serbia, Austria, Albania, and Romania.[7][15]
Middle East
Significant oil shale deposits are located in Israel (equal to about 250 billion barrels (4.0×1010 cubic metres) of shale oil) and in Jordan (equal to about 102 billion barrels (1.62×1010 cubic metres) of shale oil).
North America
At 301 billion metric tons, as estimated in 2005, the oil shale deposits in the United States are the largest in the world. There are two major deposits: the eastern US deposits, in Devonian-Mississippian shales, cover 250,000 square miles (650,000 km2); the western US deposits of the Green River Formation in Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah, are among the richest oil shale deposits in the world.[7]
More recent studies by the United States Geological Survey estimate that the resource in the United States may be bigger than previously estimated. According to these studies, three largest oil-shale deposits — all are part of the Green River Formation — are the Piceance Basin with 1.525157 trillion barrels (2.424806×1011 cubic metres),[22] the Greater Green River Basin with 1.444992 trillion barrels (2.297354×1011 cubic metres),[23] and the Uinta Basin with 1.318964 trillion barrels (2.096985×1011 cubic metres) in-place shale oil resources.[24] In 2010, it was estimated by the World Energy Council that the United States resource could be equal to 3.7 trillion barrels (590 billion cubic metres) of shale oil.[15] In 2016, their estimation was that the resource may even consist of up to 6 trillion barrels (950 billion cubic metres) of shale oil.[14]
In Canada 19 deposits have been identified. The best-examined deposits are in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.[25]
Oceania
In 2008, Australia's oil shale resource was estimated at 4.531 billion metric tons of oil shale equal to 31.7 billion barrels (5.04×109 cubic metres) of shale oil, of which about 24 billion barrels (3.8 billion cubic metres) is recoverable.[15] The deposits are located in the eastern and southern states with the biggest potential in the eastern Queensland deposits.[7] Oil shale has also been found in New Zealand.[15]
South America
Brazil has at least nine oil shale deposits in
See also
- Oil shale industry
- Oil shale economics
- Countries by shale oil reserves
References
- ^ a b IEA (2010), p. 165
- ^ a b c d WEC (2016), p. 16
- ^ a b c
Francu, Juraj; Harvie, Barbra; Laenen, Ben; Siirde, Andres; Veiderma, Mihkel (May 2007). "A study on the EU oil shale industry viewed in the light of the Estonian experience. A report by EASAC to the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy of the European Parliament" (PDF). European Academies Science Advisory Council: 1–2. Retrieved 2011-05-07.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^
Brendow, K. (2003). "Global oil shale issues and perspectives. Synthesis of the Symposium on Oil Shale. 18–19 November, Tallinn" (PDF). S2CID 252652047. Retrieved 21 July 2007.
- ^ a b c
Qian, J.; Wang, J.; Li, S. (2003). "Oil Shale Development in China" (PDF). Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal. 20 (3). Estonian Academy Publishers: 356–359. S2CID 130553387. Retrieved 2007-06-16.
- ^ a b
Altun, N. E.; Hiçyilmaz, C.; Hwang, J.-Y.; Suat Bağci, A.; Kök, M. V. (2006). "Oil Shales in the world and Turkey; reserves, current situation and future prospects: a review" (PDF). Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal. 23 (3). Estonian Academy Publishers: 211–227. S2CID 53395288. Retrieved 2007-06-16.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n
Dyni, John R. (2006). "Geology and resources of some world oil-shale deposits. Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5294" (PDF). U.S. Department of the Interior. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ a b WEC (2016), p. 14
- ISSN 0166-5162.
- ^ a b c Ots, Arvo (2007-02-12). "Estonian oil shale properties and utilization in power plants" (PDF). Energetika. 53 (2). Lithuanian Academy of Sciences Publishers: 8–18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-05. Retrieved 2011-05-06.
- ^ Savory, Eric. "Energy conversion. ES 832a. Lecture 4 - Fuels" (PPT). Department of Mechanical and Material Engineering. University of Western Ontario. Retrieved 2007-10-27.
- ^
Elayer, R.W.; Dorling, I.P.; McKie, P.W. (1990). "Oil Shale Exploration and Geology". In Kennedy, B.A. (ed.). Surface Mining. Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-87335-102-7.
- ^ Youngquist, Walter (1998). "Shale Oil – The Elusive Energy" (PDF). Hubbert Center Newsletter (4). Colorado School of Mines. Retrieved 2007-11-08.
- ^ a b c d WEC (2016), p. 17
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Dyni (2010), pp. 101–102
- ^ Bekri, Omar (1992). "Possibilities for Oil Shale Development in Morocco" (PDF). Energeia. 3 (5). University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research: 1–2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-05. Retrieved 2008-06-21.
- ^ Carroll, Alan R. (2007-10-17). Upper Permian Oil Shale Deposits of Northwest China:World's Largest? (PDF). 27th Oil Shale Symposium. Golden, Colorado. Retrieved 2009-05-30.
- ^ Suwannathong, Apiradee; Khummongkol, Damrong (2007). Oil Shale Resource in Mae Sot Basin, Thailand (PDF). 27th Oil Shale Symposium. Colorado School of Mines. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
- ^ "Uzbekistan postpones shale plant construction". Trend News Agency. 2015-12-29. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
- ^ Hamarneh, Yousef; Alali, Jamal; Sawaged, Suzan (1998). Oil Shale Resources Development In Jordan. Amman: Natural Resources Authority of Jordan.
- ^ Dyni (2010), p. 111
- ^ Johnson, Ronald C.; Mercier, Tracey J.; Brownfield, Michael E.; Pantea, M.P.; Self, Jesse G. (2009-04-02). Assessment of In-Place Oil Shale Resources of the Green River Formation, Piceance Basin, Western Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2009–3012 (PDF). Retrieved 2012-05-26.
- ^ Johnson, Ronald C.; Mercier, Tracey J.; Brownfield, Michael E. (2011-06-27). Assessment of In-Place Oil Shale Resources of the Green River Formation, Greater Green River Basin in Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2011–3063 (PDF). Retrieved 2012-05-26.
- ^ Johnson, Ronald C.; Mercier, Tracey J.; Brownfield, Michael E.; Self, Jesse G. (2010-05-07). Assessment of In-Place Oil Shale Resources of the Green River Formation, Uinta Basin, Utah and Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2011–3010 (PDF). Retrieved 2014-05-26.
- ^ Dyni (2010), p. 106
- ^
Russell, Paul L. (1990). Oil shales of the world, their origin, occurrence and exploitation (First ed.). Pergamon Press. pp. 162–224. ISBN 0-08-037240-6.
Bibliography
- Dyni, John R. (2010). "Oil Shale". In Clarke, Alan W.; Trinnaman, Judy A. (eds.). 2010 Survey of Energy Resources (PDF) (22 ed.). ISBN 978-0-946121-02-1. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2014-11-08. Retrieved 2014-12-09.
- ISBN 978-92-64-08624-1.
- World energy resources. Oil 2016 (PDF). ISBN 978-0-946121-62-5.