Italian Tripolitania

Italian Tripolitania Tripolitania Italiana ( Arabic )
1911–1934
Flag Coat of arms
Roman Catholicism
Government	Colonial administration
Monarch
• 1911–1934	Victor Emmanuel III
Governor
• 1911 (first)	R.B.R. d'Olmo
• 1928–1934 (last)	Pietro Badoglio
Historical era	Interwar period
• Occupation of Tripoli	5 October 1911
• Italian sovereignty	5 November 1911
• Ottoman withdrawal	18 October 1912
• Tripolitania colony	12 November 1922
• Part of Italian Libya	1 January 1934
Preceded by Succeeded by Ottoman Tripolitania Tripolitanian Republic Italian Libya

Italian Tripolitania was an Italian colony, located in present-day western Libya, that existed from 1911 to 1934. It was part of the territory conquered from the Ottoman Empire after the Italo-Turkish War in 1911. Italian Tripolitania included the western northern half of Libya, with Tripoli^[1] as its main city. In 1934, it was unified with Italian Cyrenaica in the colony of Italian Libya. In 1939, Tripolitania was considered a part of the Kingdom of Italy's 4th Shore.

Although resistance to the Italian colonisers was less prevalent in Tripolitania than Cyrenaica (which waged significant guerilla warfare), a resistance group did form the Tripolitanian Republic in 1918. Although it didn't succeed in setting up a republic, it demonstrated attempts to resist colonial control. The Italian colonisers set up various infrastructure projects, most notably roads and railways. Archeology was another important feature of the Italian presence in Tripolitania, as they focused efforts in excavations in old Roman cities.

A significant number of Italian settlers moved to Tripolitania, particularly to Tripoli, and Italian presence was still felt long after the decolonisation process began.

Italian Tripolitania and Italian Cyrenaica were formed in 1911, during the conquest of Ottoman Tripolitania in the Italo-Turkish War.

Despite a major revolt by the Arabs, the Ottoman sultan ceded Libya to the Italians by signing the 1912 Treaty of Lausanne. The Italians made extensive use of the Savari, colonial cavalry troops raised in December 1912. These units were recruited from the Arab-Berber population of Libya following the initial Italian occupation in 1911–12. The Savari, like the Spahi or mounted Libyan police, formed part of the Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali della Libia (Royal Corps of Libyan Colonial Troops).

The memoirs of Francesco Crispi states the discussion of Tripoli during the Congress of Berlin.^[2] The discussion was halted as it was not a priority, however Italy's attention in the congress was focused on Tripoli.^[3] Their expansion into Tripoli, which they believed was their right, was reluctantly accepted by other European Powers.^[3] The Italian occupation of Tripoli was mentioned within the Italian press during the following years, Tripolitania was expecting Italian arrival.^[3]

Sheikh Sidi Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later King Idris I), of the Senussi, led Libyan resistance in various forms through the outbreak of the Second World War. After the Italian army invaded Cyrenaica in 1913 as part of their invasion of Libya, the Senussi Order fought back against them.^[4] When the Order's leader, Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi, abdicated his position, he was replaced by Idris, who was his cousin.^{[5][full citation needed]} Pressured to do so by the Ottoman Empire, Ahmed had pursued armed attacks against British military forces stationed in neighbouring Egypt. On taking power, Idris put a stop to these attacks.^{[5][full citation needed]}

Instead he established a tacit alliance with the British, which would last for half a century and accord his Order de facto diplomatic status.^[4] Using the British as intermediaries, Idris led the Order into negotiations with the Italians in July 1916.^[4] These resulted in two agreements, at al-Zuwaytina in April 1916 and at Akrama in April 1917.^[6] The latter of these treaties left most of inland Cyrenaica under the control of the Senussi Order.^[5] Relations between the Senussi Order and the newly established Tripolitanian Republic were acrimonious.^[7] The Senussi attempted to militarily extend their power into eastern Tripolitania, resulting in a pitched battle at Bani Walid in which the Senussi were forced to withdraw back into Cyrenaica.^[5]

At the end of World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed an armistice agreement in which they ceded their claims over Libya to Italy.^[8] Italy however was facing serious economic, social, and political problems domestically, and was not prepared to re-launch its military activities in Libya.^[8] It issued statutes known as the Legge Fondamentale with both the Tripolitanian Republic in June 1919 and Cyrenaica in October 1919. These brought about a compromise by which all Libyans were accorded the right to a joint Libyan-Italian citizenship while each province was to have its own parliament and governing council.^[8] The Senussi were largely happy with this arrangement and Idris visited Rome as part of the celebrations to mark the promulgation of the settlement.^[8]

In October 1920, further negotiations between Italy and Cyrenaica resulted in the Accord of al-Rajma, in which Idris was given the title of the Emir of Cyrenaica and permitted to autonomously administer the oases around Kufra, Jalu, Jaghbub, Awjila, and Ajdabiya. As part of the Accord he was given a monthly stipend by the Italian government, who agreed to take responsibility for policing and administration of areas under Senussi control.^[8] The Accord also stipulated that Idris must fulfill the requirements of the Legge Fondamentale by disbanding the Cyrenaican military units, however he did not comply with this.^[8] By the end of 1921, relations between the Senussi Order and the Italian government had again deteriorated.^[8]

Following the death of Tripolitanian leader

Fighting intensified after the accession to power in Italy of the

The

Benito Mussolini gave General Rodolfo Graziani responsibility for the pacification of Libya, due to previous success in the reoccupation of Tripolitania and Fezzan.^[12] Tripolitanian resistance was not as substantial, as various tribes cooperated with Italians.^[13] However, Graziani saw Cyrenaica as a problem due to the united force of Cyrenaican tribesmen and merchants.^[12] As well as 70 years worth of gathering with the religious and social movement, Sanusiyya.^[12] As a consequence they were able to forge a unified front that shared an anti-colonial, pan-Islamic ideology that successfully resisted colonialism.^[12]

Guerrilla warfare in 1924, by Shaykh Rida, brother of Sayyid Idris, was able to contain Italians, with a force of 2,00 to 6,000 tribalmen.^[14] In December 1925, an agreement between Great Britain cemented Italy's jurisdiction on Jaghbub and Kufra.^[14]This made guerrilla attacks more tortuous, as Italians established control by making it impossible for Rida to attack. The Italians did this by constructing fences across the border and patrolling with aircraft and cars.^[14] Shaykh Rida was arrested in January 1928 and exiled to Sicily.^[14]

The resistance was later led by 'Umar Al-Mukhtar. The Al-Mukhtar resistance notably included a network of spies in Italian enforced towns.^[12] It was estimated by Graziani that the native guerrillas numbered around 3.000 and they owned about 20,000 guns.^[12] Al-Mukhtar and the Cyrenacians had advantages over the Italians as they knew the terrain, and used the mountains and trails as a trump card.^[12] In 1931, Al-Mukhtar engaged in 250 attacks with the Italian army, Italian officials attempted to bribe 'Umar al-Mukhtar, with salary and retirement but were rejected.^[12]

Resistance in both Cyrenaica and Tripolitania was not uniquely based on religious motives but instead was a virtue of the colonial struggle, especially within Cyrenaica, they fought with both religious order and tribal support, the latter being immensely supportive.^[14] In 1915, Italian domination was declining, with forces being held only within coastal cities.^[14]On the 29th of April 1915, they experienced a heavy defeat at the battle of Gasr Bu Hadi, when a presumed ally Ramadan al-Suwayhli, defeated an Italian column.^[14]

The Italian defeat and engrossment with the war in Europe meant that Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were able to have political agency. Arab nationalism was trending, and after several attempts at regaining power in Tripolitania Al-Suwayhil was able to create the Tripolitanian Republic in 1918 with Ahmad Al-Murayyid of Tarhuna, Abd Al-Nabi Bilkhayr of Warfalla, Sulayman Al-Baruni.^[14] Al-Suwayhil's advisor was also Abd al-Rahman Azzam Bey, an Egyptian nationalist, who later became the first secretary general of the Arab League.^[14]The Tripolitanian Republic shortly failed after disagreements among rival factions and Italian pressures, however, it showed the first attempt at a republican government in the Arab world as well as the impact of resistance.^[15]

The resistance came to a stop with Umar Al-Mukhtar's capture on the 11th of September 1931, his trial ran personally by General Rodolfo Graziani.^[14]Within five days the trial ended with the public hanging of the Al-Mukhtar, Concluding the era of organised resistance.^[14]

Italian Tripolitania and Italian Cyrenaica were formed in 1911, during the conquest of Ottoman Tripolitania in the Italo-Turkish War. In 1934, Italian Tripolitania became part of Italian Libya.

In December 1934, certain rights were guaranteed to autochthonous

In early 1943 the region was invaded and occupied by the Allies; this was the end of the Italian colonial presence.

Italy tried unsuccessfully to maintain the colony of Tripolitania after World War II, but in February 1947 relinquished all Italian colonies in a Peace Treaty.

The legacy of the unification of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica by the Italians in 1934 and their treatment of these regions throughout their fascist rule has been tied to the regionalism and conflict present in Libya today. The Italian colonial administration prioritised the economy and infrastructure in Tripolitania compared to Cyrenaica.^[13] They treated the population with less violence than Cyrenaica, whose population was halved due to forced deportation and concentration camps.^[13][17] Gaddafi continued this legacy of prioritising Tripolitania when important economic businesses were moved from Cyrenaica to Tripolitania, negatively impacting the region's economy, and when he removed significant leaders from the region from power.^[13] Consequently, people in Cyrenaica began to protest, however, they were repressed by Gaddafi's government.^[13] Various scholars agree that the origins of the recent regional conflicts and animosities in Libya between Tripolitania and Cyrenaica can be found in the Italian administration.^[18][13][19]

The legacy of Italian colonisation has led to significant anti-western sentiments across Tripolitania and all of Libya which, some scholars argue, were crucial for Gaddafi's legitimacy.

The Province of Tripoli (the most important in all Italian Libya) was subdivided into:

• Tripoli
• Zawiya
• Sugh el Giumaa
• Nalut
• Gharyan

A large number of Italian colonists moved to Tripolitania in the late 1930s. These settlers went primarily to the area of Sahel al-Jefara, in Tripolitania, and to the capital Tripoli. In 1939 there were in all Tripolitania nearly 60,000 Italians, most living in Tripoli (whose population was nearly 45% Italian).

The Second World War impacted the Italian demography in Tripolitania; some moved due to conscription in the Italian army, with their families evacuated back to the Italian homeland, and others were moved from Cyrenaica to Tripolitania by the government.[26] After the war and the loss of Italian control over Libya, the Italian state was fearful of the oncoming influx of settlers returning to Italy as it lacked the capacity to accommodate them.^[26] Consequently, only Italians in particular circumstances were permitted by their government to repatriate, and many found themselves stuck. A letter written to the Italian Prime Minister stated that many Italians in Tripolitania had been unable to return due to these circumstances.^[26] This same letter describes how some requested the Italian government to send family members back to Tripolitania from Italy as they were split up during the war evacuations. The British helped mediate agreements which concluded that an equal number of people had to move to Tripolitania as those who moved back to Italy.^[26] There were, however, still reports of instances in which people made their own way to Tripolitania to join their family, regardless of these agreements.

Due to this inability to easily go back to Italy, alongside a process labelled the "colonial twilight", which refers to the slow process of decolonisation which took place throughout Libya, the Italian presence was felt for some time.^[26] However, it slowly dwindled and moved out of the rural areas and moved into Tripoli, until 1970. In this year, Gaddafi "expelled" the remaining Italians in Libya, bringing an end to the legacy of the colonial Italian presence in Tripolitania.^[26]

In Italian Tripolitania, the Italians made significant improvements to the physical infrastructure: The most important were the coastal road between Tripoli and Benghazi and the railways Tripoli-Zuara, Tripoli-Garian and Tripoli-Tagiura. Other important infrastructure improvements were the enlargement of the port of Tripoli and the creation of the Tripoli airport.

A group of villages for Italians and Libyans was created on coastal Tripolitania during the 1930s.^[27]

Tourism was further promoted by the creation of the Tripoli Grand Prix, a racing car event of international importance.^[29]

• 1911: Beginning of the
  Al Khums.^[30]
• 1912:
  Treaty of Lausanne ^[it] ends the Italo-Turkish war. Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were ceded to Italy.^[30]
• 1914: Italian advance to Ghat (August) makes Tripolitania (including Fezzan) initially under Italian suzerainty, but because of the recapture of Sabha (November) by Libyan resistance men, the advance turns into retreat.^[30]
• 1915: Italian reverses at the battles of Wadi Marsit, and Al Gardabiya, forced them to withdraw and eventually to retire to
  Al Khums.^[30][31]
• 1922: Italian forces occupy Misrata, launching the reconquest of Tripolitania.^[30]
• 1924: With the conquest of Sirt, most of Tripolitania (except the Sirt desert) is in Italian hands.^[30]
• Winter 1927-8: Launching the "29th Parallel line operations", as a result of coordination between the governments of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, led to the conquest of gulf of Sidra, and linking the two colonies.^[32]
• 1929: Pietro Badoglio becomes a unique governor of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica.^[30]
• 1929-1930: Conquest of Fezzan.^[30]
• 1934: Tripolitania is incorporated into the Colony of Libya.
• 1939: Tripolitania is made part of the
  4th Shore
  of the Kingdom of Italy.

Bibliography

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Italian Tripolitania.

• Bearman, Jonathan (1986). Qadhafi's Libya. London: Zed Books.
  ISBN 978-0-86232-434-6
  .
• Chapin Metz, Helen, ed. Libya: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987.
• Del Boca, Angelo. Gli italiani in Libia. Vol. 1: Tripoli bel suol d'Amore. Milano, Mondadori, 1997.
• ISBN 978-1-85168-919-4
  .
• Sarti, Durand. The Ax within: Italian Fascism in Action. Modern Viewpoints. New York, 1974.
• Vandewalle, Dirk J. (2006). A history of modern Libya. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-521-85048-3
  .

See also

• List of colonial governors of Italian Tripolitania
• Postage stamps and postal history of Tripolitania
• Banknotes of the Military Authority in Tripolitania
• Libyan resistance movement
• Territorio Sahara Libico
• Italian Libya Railways
• 4th Shore