Languages of Algeria
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The
Malika Rebai Maamri, author of "The Syndrome of the French Language in Algeria," said "The language spoken at home and in the street remains a mixture of Algerian dialect and French words."[6] Due to the number of languages and complexity involving those languages, Maamri argued that "[t]oday the linguistic situation in Algeria is dominated by multiple discourses and positions."[6]
Currently spoken languages
Arabic
According to
The 1963 constitution of Algeria made Arabic the official language, and this was retained in the 1976 constitution. The 1976 constitution states in Article 3 "Arabic is the national and official language". Neither constitution mentions Berber. The
In Algeria, as elsewhere, spoken Arabic differs very substantially from written Arabic; Algerian Arabic has a much-simplified vowel system, a substantially changed vocabulary and does not have the
In the
After Algeria became independent in 1962, it tried to improve fluency by importing Arabic teachers from Egypt and Syria. Martin Regg Cohn of the Toronto Star said that many of the instructors were unqualified.[8] In 1963, of the 1,300,000 literate people in Algeria, an estimate of 300,000 read literary Arabic. Mohamed Benrabah, author of "Language maintenance and spread: French in Algeria," said that during that year, "linguistic competence in Standard Arabic was relatively low."[9] Malika Rebai Maamri, author of "The Syndrome of the French Language in Algeria," said that as of 2009, "classical Arabic is still not mastered even at higher educational levels" and that "dialectical Arabic cannot express things in writing."[6]
As of 2012, remaining generations educated under the French colonial system are unable to read or write Arabic.[10]
Berber
The
Before, during and after
Arabic remained Algeria's only official language until 2002, when Berber was recognized as a second national language.[11] And in 2016 Berber was recognized as a second official language of Algeria.
The 1963 constitution and the 1976 constitution do not mention Berber and French. The
The Berber languages/dialects spoken in Algeria include:
In the north
- Kabylie and surrounding regions, due to Kabyle migration outside of the Kabyle region in Algeria and Europe, some estimates are as high as 8 million.[12]
- Shawiya (also called Tachawit, Chawi) in the Aurès, maybe 2 million speakers.[13]
- Shenwa, in the Dahra region, particularly of Jebel Chenoua in Algeria, just west of Algiers near Tipaza province and Cherchell and the Chlef., estimated 56,300 speakers. Two main dialects: Beni Menacer, west and south of Mount Chenoua area, in the Mount Chenoua area, 55,250 speakers.[14]
- The Tamazight of Blida, traditionally spoken in the wilaya of Blida.
- The Matmata dialect, spoken in some villages of the Ouarsenis region.
In the extreme northwest
- Beni Snous and Beni Said, dialects of Berber spoken in various villages of the wilaya of Tlemcen.[15][16]
In the Sahara
- Mozabite (Tumẓabt) in the M'zab
- language of Gourara (called "Taznatit" by the Ethnologue, but that name is used for most of the Zenati languages)
- language of Temacine
- Hoggar (see Tuareg languages)
French
The
The 1963 and 1976 constitutions do not mention Berber and French. The PCGN stated "official attitudes towards both Berber and French have been largely negative".
French is a part of the standard school curriculum, and is widely understood (18 million Algerians can write and read French, which is 50% of the population, and the figure is higher if those who can only speak and understand it are included;
French is the most widely studied foreign language in the country, and a majority of Algerians can understand it and speak it. Since independence, the government has pursued a policy of linguistic Arabization of education and bureaucracy, which has resulted in limiting the use of Berber and the Arabization of many Berber-speakers. The strong position of French in Algeria was little affected by the Arabization policy. All scientific and business university courses are still taught in French. Recently, schools have begun to incorporate French into the curriculum as early as children are taught written classical Arabic. French is also used in media and business. After a political debate in Algeria in the late 1990s about whether to replace French with English in the educational system, the government decided to retain French. English is taught in the first year of middle schools.[citation needed]
In spite of its widespread use of French, Algeria has not joined the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, an international organization of French-speaking countries.[8] Although not a member, they attend for it.
In 2014, 76% of Facebook users in Algeria posted in French, while 32% posted in Arabic. In 2016 68% used Facebook in French, while 43% used it in Arabic.
English
According to the Algerian envoy to India, only five percent of the population are able to speak "good English"[clarification needed]. That led the Government to invite Indians to teach the language in Algerian universities in 2012.[21] Some 100 institutes affiliated to 13 Algerian universities needed nearly 250 English teachers in early 2012.[21]
Korandje
The Korandje language of the Saharan oasis of Tabelbala is a heavily Berber-influenced variety of Songhay. A Nilo-Saharan language, it is more widely spoken far to the south in Niger.
Sign languages
Algerian Sign Language is used in Algeria by the deaf; it has sometimes been used on national TV.
Formerly spoken languages
Phoenician
Latin
Ottoman Turkish
Other
- Tetuani dialect; however, most shifted to Frenchduring the colonial period.
- The Mediterranean Lingua Franca, a mixture of many Mediterranean languages, was once widespread as a means of communication with foreigners in the ports, including the slaves of the bagnios and the European renegades that joined the Barbary pirates; after 1830, it gradually disappeared, its functions taken over by French.
- culture.
- Patuet is a Catalan dialect with French and Arabic influences spoken by pied-noirs from Catalan-speaking areas.
Languages used in the Algerian government
Mohamed Benrabah, author of "Language maintenance and spread: French in Algeria," said that as of 2007, "Arabization is either complete or almost complete" in the
In 1968 the Algerian government decreed that all civil positions use the Arabic language. In 1990 the government ruled that Arabic is the only language to be used in institutions and public service, and imprisonment was a penalty for violating this law.
Of the documents submitted by the Algerian government to the sessions of the
Languages used in Algerian education
As of 2007, Arabization has mainly affected primary and secondary education, while in university education French retained a higher social prestige and class and is the language used in scientific studies.[22] As of 2002, French was taught as a foreign language from the fourth year of primary school until the final year of secondary school. French is used in the high school level in the exact sciences, the medical sciences, and technology studies. Some specialized fields offer courses in French and courses in Arabic. Almost all students prefer the French courses in those fields. Over 60% of university students in Algeria are educated in French. In graduate programmes in social sciences, French is used.[25]
History of languages in Algerian education
The first
The Algerian government had plans to totally Arabize the university sector effective December 1980. In all levels of education, bilingual education ended in 1985.
In 1999 the Algerian authorities conducted a survey which stated that 75% of the population supported teaching scientific school subjects in the French language.[34] In the middle of March 2001 the National Commission for the Reform of the Educational System (CNRSE according to its French name) proposed that French would be reintroduced in grade two of the primary cycle, serving 6–7 year olds, instead of grade four, serving 8–9 year olds, and that scientific subjects in secondary school should be taught in French. Therefore, students would be biliterate in French and Arabic instead of having French as a subject. In 2002 the opponents to the bilingual educational proposal declared a fatwa against the pro-bilingual supporters. The reforms were intended to be implemented in September 2001 but the Ministry of the Interior suspended them on 3 September 2001.[35]
By 2008 the Algerian government began reintroducing French in the school system.[36]
References
- Benrabah, Mohamed. "Language maintenance and spread: French in Algeria." EBSCOHost.
- Benrabah, Mohamed. "Language-in-Education Planning in Algeria: Historical Development and Current Issues." Springer Link.
- Berger, Anne-Emanuelle. Algeria in Others' Languages (Cornell French studies series). ISBN 080148801X, 9780801488016.
Notes
- ^ Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). "Languages of Algeria". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (sixteenth edition). SIL International. Retrieved 2010-01-08.
- ^ Constitution of Algeria.
- ^ Tamazight official in Algeria
- ^ "Algeria reinstates term limit and recognises Berber language". BBC News. 7 February 2016.
- ^ a b c d Leclerc, Jacques (2009-04-05). "Algérie: Situation géographique et démolinguistique". L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde. Université Laval. Archived from the original on 2010-01-24. Retrieved 2010-01-08."Aujourd'hui, la majorité des Algériens sont arabophones dans une proportion de 72 %. Parmi les Arabophones, c'est l'arabe algérien qui dominent nettement avec 60 % de la population totale et 83,2 % des arabophones. Les autres arabophones parlent le hassaniyya (11,3 %), l'arabe marocain (0,4 %), l'arabe du Sahara (0,1 %), l'arabe égyptien, voire l'arabe irakien. Toutes les variétés d'arabe appartiennent au groupe sémitique de la famille chamito-sémitique. Mais tous les arabophones d'Algérie parlent l'arabe dialectal ou l'arabe dit algérien (ou ses diverses variétés) pour communiquer entre eux. Autrement dit, à l'oral, c'est l'arabe algérien qui sert de langue véhiculaire, mais à l'écrit, c'est l'arabe classique."
- ^ ISSN 1944-6934p. 10 of 13
- ^ a b c d e f g h "ALGERIA Language & Toponymy How politically driven language policies have impeded toponymic progress." (Archive) Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use. p. 2. Retrieved on 12 March 2013. "Yet Arabic is rarely heard in Kabylie, where Berber and French are spoken"
- ^ a b c d Cohn, Martin Regg. "Algeria's other 'civil war' – on the French language." Toronto Star. July 29, 1997. Insight p. A11. Available on LexisNexis.
- ^ Benrabah "Language maintenance and spread: French in Algeria" p. 194.
- ^ Arnold, Chloe. "Algeria: A nation yearning for change." BBC. 11 October 2012. Retrieved on 13 October 2012.
- ^ (in French) – « Loi n° 02-03 portant révision constitutionnelle », adopted on 10 April 2002.
- ^ Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009), "Kabyle: A Language of Algeria", Ethnologue: Languages of the World (sixteenth edition), SIL International, retrieved 2010-01-08
- ^ Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). "Tachawit: A Language of Algeria". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (sixteenth edition). SIL International. Retrieved 2010-01-08.
- ^ Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). "Chenoua: A Language of Algeria". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (sixteenth edition). SIL International. Retrieved 2010-01-08.
- ^ Souag, Lameen (2009-03-19). "Beni-Snous: Two unrelated phonetic forms for every noun?". Jabal al-Lughat. Retrieved 2010-01-08.
- ISBN 978-0-8108-5452-9.
- ^ "The World Factbook – Africa – Algeria". CIA. Archived from the original on 3 January 2021. Retrieved 3 Jan 2021.
- ^ a b "ALGERIA Language & Toponymy How politically driven language policies have impeded toponymic progress." (Archive) Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use. p. 7. Retrieved on 12 March 2013.
- ^ "La mondialisation, une chance pour la francophonie". Senat.fr. Archived from the original on 2013-05-13. Retrieved 2013-01-17. () "L'Algérie, non membre de l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, comptabilise la seconde communauté francophone au monde, avec environ 16 millions de locuteurs, suivie par la Côte d'Ivoire avec près de 12 millions de locuteurs francophones, le Québec avec 6 millions et la Belgique avec plus de 4 millions de francophones."
- Office national des statistiques d’Algérie."
- ^ a b Kashani, Sarwar. "Algeria wants to learn English from India." (Archive) Ummid.com, Awaz Multimedia & Publications. Sunday 29 January 2012. Retrieved on 12 March 2013.
- ^ a b c d Benrabah "Language maintenance and spread: French in Algeria", p. 195
- ^ Benrabah "Language maintenance and spread: French in Algeria", p. 194-195.
- ^ a b c d Berger, p. 52.
- ^ Berger, p. 53.
- ^ Benrabah, Mohamed "Language-in-Education Planning in Algeria: Historical Development and Current Issues", p. 229
- ^ Benrabah, Mohamed "Language-in-Education Planning in Algeria: Historical Development and Current Issues", p. 229-230
- ^ a b c Benrabah, Mohamed "Language-in-Education Planning in Algeria: Historical Development and Current Issues", p. 230
- ^ Benrabah, Mohamed "Language-in-Education Planning in Algeria: Historical Development and Current Issues", p. 230-231
- ^ a b Berger, p. 70. "Standard Arabic became the language of schooling up to the university level, where French still holds sway in some sectors. (Officially the university was to be entirely Arabized as of December 1980. In 1985 an end was put to bilingual education at all levels, while President Chadli officially barred Algerian nationals from attending all-French schools; yet the elite and the powerful, most often educated in French, continued to send their[...]"
- ^ a b c Benrabah, Mohamed "Language-in-Education Planning in Algeria: Historical Development and Current Issues", p. 232
- ^ Benrabah, Mohamed "Language-in-Education Planning in Algeria: Historical Development and Current Issues", p. 232-233
- ^ Farès, Ali. "Insécurité dans les établissements scolaires Une écolière de 7 ans violée au lycée Bouamama (ex-Descartes)." (Archive) Liberté. Saturday 19 November 2011. Retrieved on 21 March 2013.
- ^ Benrabah, Mohamed "Language-in-Education Planning in Algeria: Historical Development and Current Issues", p. 228
- ^ Benrabah, Mohamed "Language-in-Education Planning in Algeria: Historical Development and Current Issues", p. 227
- ^ Slackman, Michael. "In Algeria, a Tug of War for Young Minds." The New York Times. 23 June 2008. Retrieved on 11 March 2013.
Further reading
- Benrabah, Mohamed. "The Language Planning Situation in Algeria." ISSN 1466-4208.
- Bossut, Camille Alexandra. Arabization in Algeria : language ideology in elite discourse, 1962–1991 (Abstract) – PhD thesis, University of Texas at Austin, May 2016.
- Morsly, Dalila. "La langue étrangère. Réflexion sur le statut de la langue française en Algérie" (Foreign language: A reflection on the status of the French language in Algeria). Le Français dans le Monde. November–December 1984, Issue 189, p. 22–26. Education Resources Information Center (ERIC)#EJ312037
- Morsly, Dalila (1985) La langue nationale: pouvoir des mots – pouvoir par les mots (National language: The power of words – power through words). Peuples Méditerranéens (Mediterranean Peoples) 33, 79–88.
- Morsly, Dalila (1988) Le Français dans la réalité algérienne (French in Algeria's Reality). Unpublished PhD thesis. Paris Descartes University, Paris.
- Morsly, Dalila (1996) Alger plurilingue (Bilingual Algiers). Plurilinguismes 12 (December), 47–80. – Also at Centre d'études et de recherches en planification linguistique, 1996.
- Morsly, Dalila (2004) Langue française en Algérie: Aménagement linguistique et mise en oeuvre des politiques linguistiques (The French language in Algeria: Language-planning and implementation of language policies). Revue d'Aménagement linguistique 107, 171–183.
- Mostari, Hind Amel. (2004) A sociolinguistic perspective on Arabisation and language use in Algeria. Language Problems and Language Planning 28 (1), 25–43.
- (in French) Amourayach, Essafia (University of Algiers). "Pratiques langagières d’étudiants en médecine de la Faculté d’Alger." Synergies Algérien° 5 – 2009 pp. 139–150. Abstracts available in English and Arabic.