Lollardy
Lollardy, also known as Lollardism or the Lollard movement, was a
Etymology
Lollard, Lollardi, or Loller was the popular derogatory nickname given to those without an academic background, educated (if at all) only in English, who were reputed to follow the teachings of John Wycliffe in particular, and were energized by the translation of the Bible into the English language. By the mid-15th century, "lollard" had come to mean a heretic in general. The alternative, "Wycliffite", is generally accepted to be a more neutral term covering those of similar opinions, but having an academic background.
The term is said to have been coined by the Anglo-Irish cleric Henry Crumpe, but its origin is uncertain. The earliest official use of the name in England occurs in 1387 in a mandate of the Bishop of Worcester against five "poor preachers", nomine seu ritu Lollardorum confoederatos.[2] According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it most likely derives from Middle Dutch lollaerd ("mumbler, mutterer"), from a verb lollen ("to mutter, mumble"). The word is much older than its English use; there were Lollards in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 14th century who were akin to the Fraticelli, Beghards, and other sectaries similar to the recusant Franciscans.[2]
Originally the Dutch word was a colloquial name for a group of buriers of the dead during the
Two other possibilities for the derivation of Lollard are mentioned by the Oxford English Dictionary:[4]
- Latin lolium, a weedy vetch (tares), supposedly a reference to the biblical Parable of the Tares (Matthew 13:24–30);
- the surname "Lolhard" of an eminent Franciscan preacher in Guyenne, who converted to the Waldensian way. The region of Guyenne was at that time under English dominion, and his preaching influenced pious lay English. He was burned at Cologne in the 1370s. Earlier, another Waldensian teacher, also named "Lolhard", was tried for heresy in Austria in 1315.[5]
Beliefs
According to scholar Margaret Aston, as Wycliffe's academic theology percolated to the masses, it changed measureably, some parts strengthening and others weakening.[6]
Eucharist
With regard to the Eucharist, Lollards such as John Wycliffe, William Thorpe, and John Oldcastle, taught a view of the real presence of Christ in Holy Communion known as "consubstantiation" and did not accept the doctrine of transubstantiation, as taught by the Roman Catholic Church.[7][8] The Plowman's Tale, a 16th-century Lollard poem, argues that theological debate about orthodox doctrine is less important than the Real Presence:[9]
I say sothe thorowe trewe rede
His flesh and blode, through his mastry
Is there/ in the forme of brede
Howe it is there/ it nedeth not stryve
Whether it be subgette or accydent
But as Christ was/ when he was on-lyve
So is he there verament.[10]
[In modern English:]
I say the truth through true understanding:
His flesh and blood, through his subtle works,
Is there in the form of bread.
In what manner it is present need not be debated,
Whether as subject or accident,
But as Christ was when he was alive,
So He is truly there.[11]
Wycliffite teachings on the Eucharist were declared heresy at the
Lollard teachings on the Eucharist are attested to in numerous primary source documents; it is the fourth of the
Denial of Sacraments and Sacramentals
The Lollards did not believe that the church practices of baptism and confession were necessary for salvation.
Believing in a
They considered praying to saints and honouring of their images to be a form of idolatry. Oaths, fasting and prayers for the dead were thought to have no scriptural basis. They had a poor opinion of the trappings of the Catholic Church, including holy water, bells, organs, and church buildings. They rejected the value of papal pardons.[18]
The Twelve Conclusions
One group of Lollards petitioned Parliament with
Expensive church artwork was seen as an excess; they believed effort should be placed on helping the needy and preaching rather than working on expensive decorations. Icons were also seen as dangerous since many seemed to be worshipping the icons more fervently than they worshipped God.
Vernacular Scripture
Lollardy was a religion of
Later Lollards believed that people deserved access to a copy of their own Bible. Many attempted to distribute English copies; however, due to the lack of a printing press and low literacy levels, it was difficult to accomplish this goal.[21]
However, a notable feature of some Lollard inquisitions was the common claim of illiteracy (or vision impairment) as a defense against the suspicion of Lollardy raised by possession of vernacular texts.[6]: 495
Catholic practices
Lollards did not observe fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church. In heresy proceedings against Margery Baxter it was presented as evidence that a servant girl found bacon in a pot of oatmeal on the first Saturday of Lent. Non-observance of dietary restrictions was used as evidence of heresy in another Norfolk case against Thomas Mone, where it was alleged that a piglet was eaten for Easter dinner when eating meat was forbidden.[22]
Special vows were considered to be in conflict with the divine order established by Christ and were regarded as anathema.[23]
Lollards also had a tendency toward iconoclasm.
Some Lollards believed work was permissible on Sundays.[6]
Foxe
Sixteenth-century
- opposition to pilgrimages and saint worship,
- denial of the doctrine of transubstantiation, and
- a demand for English translation of the Scriptures.[24]
History
Although Lollardy was denounced as a heresy by the Catholic Church, initially Wycliffe and the Lollards were sheltered by John of Gaunt and other anti-clerical nobility, who may have wanted to use Lollard-advocated clerical reform to acquire new sources of revenue from England's monasteries. The University of Oxford also protected Wycliffe and similar academics on the grounds of academic freedom and, initially, allowed such persons to retain their positions despite their controversial views.
A primary religious opponent of the Wycliffites was Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury, assisted by bishops like Henry le Despenser of Norwich, whom the chronicler Thomas Walsingham praised for his zeal.[25]
Peasants' Revolt
Lollards first faced serious persecution after the Peasants' Revolt in 1381. While Wycliffe and other Lollards opposed the revolt, one of the peasants' leaders, John Ball, preached Lollardy. Prior to 1382, Wycliffite beliefs were tolerated in government as they endorsed in royal superiority to bishops.[clarification needed] However, the government and royals were hesitant, as they did not want to encourage subjects to criticize religious powers.[21]
After 1382, royalty and nobility found Lollardy to be a threat not only to the Church, but to English society in general. The Lollards' small measure of protection evaporated. This change in status was also affected by the departure of
Paul Strohm has asked: "Was the Lollard a genuine threat or a political pawn, agent of destabilising challenge, or a hapless threat of self-legitimizing Lancastrian discourse?"[26]
Lollard Knights
A group of gentry active during the reign of Richard II (1377–99) were known as "Lollard Knights" either during or after their lives due to their acceptance of Wycliffe's claims. Henry Knighton, in his Chronicle, identifies the principal Lollard Knights as Thomas Latimer, John Trussell, Lewis Clifford, Sir John Peche (son of John Peche of Wormleighton), Richard Storey, and Reginald Hilton. Thomas Walsingham's Chronicle adds William Nevil and John Clanvowe to the list, and other potential members of this circle have been identified by their wills, which contain Lollard-inspired language about how their bodies are to be plainly buried and permitted to return to the soil whence they came. There is little indication that the Lollard Knights were specifically known as such during their lifetimes; they were men of discretion, and unlike Sir John Oldcastle years later, rarely gave any hint of open rebellion. However, they displayed a remarkable ability to retain important positions without falling victim to the various prosecutions of Wycliffe's followers occurring during their lifetimes.
Legal response
Religious and secular authorities strongly opposed Lollardy. In eventual response to the revolting Lollards, the law De heretico comburendo was enacted in 1401 during the reign of Henry IV; traditionally heresy had been defined as an error in theological belief, but this statute equated theological heresy with sedition against political rulers.[26]
By the early 15th century, stern measures were undertaken by Church and state which drove Lollardy underground. One such measure was the 1410 burning at the stake of John Badby, a layman and craftsman who refused to renounce his Lollardy. He was the first layman to suffer capital punishment in England for the crime of heresy.
Oldcastle Revolt
1428 Kentish Insurrection
An insurrection was nipped in the bud in 1428, feared to involve several thousand Lollards, intent on "destroying the English church."[6]: 769 It was associated with Lollard missionary William White.
Late Lollardy in the 1500s
Lollards were effectively absorbed into
A variety of other martyrs for the Lollard cause were executed during the next century, including the Amersham Martyrs in the early 1500s and Thomas Harding in 1532, one of the last Lollards to be made victim. A gruesome reminder of this persecution is the 'Lollards Pit' in Thorpe Wood, now Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich, Norfolk, "where men are customablie burnt",[31] including Thomas Bilney.
Despite the debate about the extent of Lollard influence there are ample records of the persecution of Lollards from this period. In the
In 1529 Simon Fish wrote an incendiary pamphlet Supplication for the Beggars including his denial of purgatory and teachings that priestly celibacy was an invention of the Antichrist. He argued that earthly rulers have the right to strip Church properties, and that tithing was against the Gospel, Protestant views that echo the Wycliffite/Lollard teaching.[33][34] He advocated closing of all monasteries, and notably provided economic estimates of the revenues of various monastic and church institutions.
The extent of Lollardy in the general populace at this time is unknown, but the prevalence of Protestant iconoclasm in England suggests Lollard ideas may still have had some popular influence if Huldrych Zwingli was not the source, as Lutheranism did not advocate iconoclasm. Lollards were persecuted again between 1554 and 1559 during the Revival of the Heresy Acts under the Catholic Mary I, which specifically suppressed heresy and Lollardy.
The similarity between Lollards and later English Protestant groups, such as the Baptists, Puritans, and Quakers, also suggests some continuation of Lollard ideas through the Reformation.[35]
Representations in art and literature
The Roman Catholic Church used art as an anti-Lollard weapon. Lollards were represented as
See also
- Margery Baxter
- Ecclesiae Regimen
- Euchites
- Hussites
- William Langland
- Nicholas Love
- Thomas Netter
- Piers Plowman
- Piers Plowman tradition
- Waldensians
Citations
- ISBN 0-7862-8517-6.
- ^ a b public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Lollards". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
- ^ cf. English lullaby, and the modern Dutch and German lallen "to babble, to talk drunkenly": "lallen". Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. November 2022.
- ^ "Lollard". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
- ^ van Bright, T.J. (1886) [1660]. The Bloody Theater or Martyrs Mirror of the Defenseless Christians. Translated by Joseph F. Sohm (Third English ed.). Scottsdale, Pennsylvania: Herald Press.
- ^ JSTOR 25021412.
- ISBN 9780748681037.
- ISBN 9780199589043.
- ISBN 978-0-85991-419-2.
- ^ McCarl, Mary Rhinelander, ed. (1997). The Plowman's Tale: The c. 1532 and 1606 Editions of a Spurious Canterbury Tale. New York: Garland. pp. 21–40.
On the dating of "The Plowman's Tale", see Andrew N. Warn, "The Genesis of The Plowman's Tale, Yearbook of English Studies 2" 1972
- ISBN 9781843836599.
- ^ Hudson 1988, p. 284.
- ISBN 978-1-59752-973-0.
- ^ Hudson 1988, p. 285.
- ISBN 978-0-905285-31-3.
- ^ Wycliffe, John; Camden Society (Great Britain); Todd, James Henthorn (1842). An apology for Lollard doctrines. London : Printed for the Camden Society, by J.B. Nichols. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
- ^ Hudson 1988, pp. 285–286.
- ^ OUP(subscription required)
- ^ Hudson 1988, p. 306.
- ^ Hudson 1988, p. 280.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-118-53221-8.
- ISBN 9780300181913.
- ^ Gasse, Roseanne (1 January 1996). "Margery Kempe and Lollardy". Magistra. Archived from the original on 30 August 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
- ^ Walker, Greg (1 May 1993). "Heretical Sects in Pre-Reformation England". History Today. Archived from the original on 30 August 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
- ^ Walsingham. Historia Anglicana. Vol. 2. p. 189..
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-967280-6. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
- ISSN 0018-2648.
- ISBN 978-0271028682.
- S2CID 248602354.
- ^ Potter, R. "Documents on the changing status of the English Vernacular, 1500–1540". RIC. Retrieved 11 March 2008.
- ISBN 0-460-04183-5..
- ISBN 9780907628057.
- ISSN 0047-8105.
- ISBN 978-1-134-91333-6.
- ISBN 978-0521410618.
- ISBN 978-0-7892-0182-9., p. 83
General references
- .
- ISBN 978-0907628187.
- ISBN 978-0312173883.
- ISBN 978-0271028682.
- ISBN 978-0300108286.
- Forrest, Ian (2005). The Detection of Heresy in Late Medieval England. Oxford: ISBN 978-0199286928.
- ISBN 978-0198227625.
- Lowe, Ben (2004). "Teaching in the 'Schole of Christ': Law, Learning, and Love in Early Lollard Pacifism". Catholic Historical Review. 90 (3): 405–38. S2CID 153795536..
- Lutton, Robert (2006). Lollardy and Orthodox Religion in Pre-Reformation England. Woodbridge and Suffolk, UK: ISBN 978-1843836490.
- ISBN 978-0340166482.
- OCLC 799426323.
- JSTOR 3600851.
- ISBN 978-0333597521.
- Robson, John Adam (1961). Wyclif and the Oxford Schools: The Relation of the "Summa de Ente" to Scholastic Debates at Oxford in the Later Fourteenth Century. Cambridge: ISBN 978-0521089326.
- ISBN 978-0521410618.
- Thomson, John A. F. (1965). The Later Lollards, 1414–1520. Oxford: ISBN 978-0198213765.
External links
- The Lollard Society—society dedicated to providing a forum for the study of the Lollards
- "John Wyclif and the Lollards" (45 mins.; discussion); episode of In Our Time, BBC Radio 4