Tower of London
His Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London | |
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Location | London Borough of Tower Hamlets |
Coordinates | 51°30′29″N 00°04′34″W / 51.50806°N 0.07611°W |
Area |
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Height | 27 metres (89 ft) |
Built |
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Visitors | 2,790,280 (in 2023)[1] |
Owner | King Charles III in right of the Crown[2] |
Europe and North America | |
Listed Building – Grade I | |
Listed Building – Grade II | |
The Tower of London, officially His Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic
The Tower of London has played a prominent role in
The zenith of the castle's use as a prison was the 16th and 17th centuries, when many figures who had fallen into disgrace, such as
In the
Architecture
Layout
The Tower was oriented with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking
The castle encloses an area of almost 12 acres (4.9 hectares) with a further 6 acres (2.4 ha) around the Tower of London constituting the Tower Liberties – land under the direct influence of the castle and cleared for military reasons.[6] The precursor of the Liberties was laid out in the 13th century when Henry III ordered that a strip of land adjacent to the castle be kept clear.[7] Despite popular fiction, the Tower of London never had a permanent torture chamber, although the basement of the White Tower housed a rack in later periods.[8] Tower Wharf was built on the bank of the Thames under Edward I and was expanded to its current size during the reign of Richard II (1377–1399).[9]
White Tower
The White Tower is a keep (also known as a donjon), which was often the strongest structure in a medieval castle, and contained lodgings suitable for the lord – in this case, the king or his representative.[10] According to military historian Allen Brown, "The great tower [White Tower] was also, by virtue of its strength, majesty and lordly accommodation, the donjon par excellence".[11] As one of the largest keeps in the Christian world,[12] the White Tower has been described as "the most complete eleventh-century palace in Europe".[13]
The White Tower, not including its projecting corner towers, measures 36 by 32 metres (118 by 105 ft) at the base, and is 27 m (90 ft) high at the southern battlements. The structure was originally three storeys high, comprising a basement floor, an entrance level, and an upper floor. The entrance, as is usual in Norman keeps, was above ground, in this case on the south face, and accessed via a wooden staircase which could be removed in the event of an attack. It was probably during Henry II's reign (1154–1189) that a forebuilding was added to the south side of the tower to provide extra defences to the entrance, but it has not survived. Each floor was divided into three chambers, the largest in the west, a smaller room in the north-east, and the chapel taking up the entrance and upper floors of the south-east.[14] At the western corners of the building are square towers, while to the north-east a round tower houses a spiral staircase. At the south-east corner there is a larger semi-circular projection which accommodates the apse of the chapel. As the building was intended to be a comfortable residence as well as a stronghold, latrines were built into the walls, and four fireplaces provided warmth.[13]
The main building material is Kentish ragstone, although some local mudstone was also used. Caen stone was imported from northern France to provide details in the Tower's facing, although little of the original material survives as it was replaced with Portland stone in the 17th and 18th centuries.[15] Reigate stone was also used as ashlar and for carved details. Its location, in the lower courses of the building and at higher levels corresponding to a building break, suggest it was readily available and may have been used when access to Caen stone was restricted.[16] As most of the Tower's windows were enlarged in the 18th century, only two original – albeit restored – examples remain, in the south wall at the gallery level.[15]
The tower was terraced into the side of a mound, so the northern side of the basement is partially below ground level.[17] As was typical of most keeps,[18] the bottom floor was an undercroft used for storage. One of the rooms contained a well. Although the layout has remained the same since the tower's construction, the interior of the basement dates mostly from the 18th century when the floor was lowered and the pre-existing timber vaults were replaced with brick counterparts.[17] The basement is lit through small slits.[13]
The entrance floor was probably intended for the use of the Constable of the Tower, Lieutenant of the Tower of London and other important officials. The south entrance was blocked during the 17th century, and not reopened until 1973. Those heading to the upper floor had to pass through a smaller chamber to the east, also connected to the entrance floor. The crypt of St John's Chapel occupied the south-east corner and was accessible only from the eastern chamber. There is a recess in the north wall of the crypt; according to Geoffrey Parnell, Keeper of the Tower History at the Royal Armouries, "the windowless form and restricted access, suggest that it was designed as a strong-room for safekeeping of royal treasures and important documents".[17]
The upper floor contained a grand hall in the west and residential chamber in the east – both originally open to the roof and surrounded by a gallery built into the wall – and St John's Chapel in the south-east. The top floor was added in the 15th century, along with the present roof.
Innermost ward
The innermost ward encloses an area immediately south of the White Tower, stretching to what was once the edge of the River Thames. As was the case at other castles, such as the 11th-century Hen Domen, the innermost ward was probably filled with timber buildings from the Tower's foundation. Exactly when the royal lodgings began to encroach from the White Tower into the innermost ward is uncertain, although it had happened by the 1170s.[15] The lodgings were renovated and elaborated during the 1220s and 1230s, becoming comparable with other palatial residences such as Windsor Castle.[22] Construction of Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers – located at the corners of the innermost ward's wall along the river – began around 1220.[23][nb 1] They probably served as private residences for the queen and king respectively.
The earliest evidence for how the royal chambers were decorated comes from Henry III's reign: the queen's chamber was whitewashed, and painted with flowers and imitation stonework. A
Inner ward
The inner ward was created during Richard the Lionheart's reign, when a moat was dug to the west of the innermost ward, effectively doubling the castle's size.[29][30] Henry III created the ward's east and north walls, and the ward's dimensions remain to this day.[7] Most of Henry's work survives, and only two of the nine towers he constructed have been completely rebuilt.[31] Between the Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers, the innermost ward's wall also serves as a curtain wall for the inner ward.[32] The main entrance to the inner ward would have been through a gatehouse, most likely in the west wall on the site of what is now Beauchamp Tower. The inner ward's western curtain wall was rebuilt by Edward I.[33] The 13th-century Beauchamp Tower marks the first large-scale use of brick as a building material in Britain, since the 5th-century departure of the Romans.[34] The Beauchamp Tower is one of 13 towers that stud the curtain wall. Clockwise from the south-west corner they are: Bell, Beauchamp, Devereux, Flint, Bowyer, Brick, Martin, Constable, Broad Arrow, Salt, Lanthorn, Wakefield, and the Bloody Tower.[32] While these towers provided positions from which flanking fire could be deployed against a potential enemy, they also contained accommodation. As its name suggests, Bell Tower housed a belfry, its purpose to raise the alarm in the event of an attack. The royal bow-maker, responsible for making longbows, crossbows, catapults, and other siege and hand weapons, had a workshop in the Bowyer Tower. A turret at the top of Lanthorn Tower was used as a beacon by traffic approaching the Tower at night.[35]
As a result of Henry's expansion,
Outer ward
A third ward was created during Edward I's extension to the Tower, as the narrow enclosure completely surrounded the castle. At the same time a bastion known as Legge's Mount was built at the castle's northwest corner. Brass Mount, the bastion in the northeast corner, was a later addition. The three rectangular towers along the east wall 15 metres (49 ft) apart were dismantled in 1843. Although the bastions have often been ascribed to the Tudor period, there is no evidence to support this; archaeological investigations suggest that Legge's Mount dates from the reign of Edward I.[46] Blocked battlements (also known as crenellations) in the south side of Legge's Mount are the only surviving medieval battlements at the Tower of London (the rest are Victorian replacements).[47] A new 50-metre (160 ft) moat was dug beyond the castle's new limits;[48] it was originally 4.5 metres (15 ft) deeper in the middle than it is today.[46] With the addition of a new curtain wall, the old main entrance to the Tower of London was obscured and made redundant; a new entrance was created in the southwest corner of the external wall circuit. The complex consisted of an inner and an outer gatehouse and a barbican,[49] which became known as the Lion Tower as it was associated with the animals as part of the Royal Menagerie since at least the 1330s.[50] The Lion Tower itself no longer survives.[49]
Edward extended the south side of the Tower of London onto land that had previously been submerged by the River Thames. In this wall, he built St Thomas's Tower between 1275 and 1279; later known as Traitors' Gate, it replaced the Bloody Tower as the castle's water-gate. The building is unique in England, and the closest parallel is the now demolished water-gate at the Louvre in Paris. The dock was covered with arrowslits in case of an attack on the castle from the River; there was also a portcullis at the entrance to control who entered. There were luxurious lodgings on the first floor.[51] Edward also moved the Royal Mint into the Tower; its exact location early on is unknown, although it was probably in either the outer ward or the Lion Tower.[52] By 1560, the Mint was located in a building in the outer ward near Salt Tower.[53] Between 1348 and 1355, a second water-gate, Cradle Tower, was added east of St Thomas's Tower for the king's private use.[40]
History
Foundation and early history
Victorious at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, the invading Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, spent the rest of the year securing his holdings by fortifying key positions. He founded several castles along the way, but took a circuitous route toward London;[54][55] only when he reached Canterbury did he turn towards England's largest city. As the fortified bridge into London was held by Saxon troops, he decided instead to ravage Southwark before continuing his journey around southern England.[56] A series of Norman victories along the route cut the city's supply lines and in December 1066, isolated and intimidated, its leaders yielded London without a fight.[57][58] Between 1066 and 1087, William established 36 castles,[55] although references in the Domesday Book indicate that many more were founded by his subordinates.[59] The Normans undertook what has been described as "the most extensive and concentrated programme of castle-building in the whole history of feudal Europe".[60] They were multi-purpose buildings, serving as fortifications (used as a base of operations in enemy territory), centres of administration, and residences.[61]
William sent an advance party to prepare the city for his entrance, to celebrate his victory and found a castle; in the words of William's biographer,
Most of the early Norman castles were built from timber, but by the end of the 11th century a few, including the Tower of London, had been renovated or replaced with stone.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 1097 King William II ordered a wall to be built around the Tower of London; it was probably built from stone and likely replaced the timber palisade that arced around the north and west sides of the castle, between the Roman wall (to the east) and the Thames (to the south).[67] The Norman Conquest of London manifested itself not only with a new ruling class, but in the way the city was structured. Land was confiscated and redistributed amongst the Normans, who also brought over hundreds of Jews, for financial reasons.[68] The Jews arrived under the direct protection of the Crown, as a result of which Jewish communities were often found close to castles.[69] The Jews used the Tower as a retreat, when threatened by anti-Jewish violence.[68]
The death in 1135 of
Expansion
The castle probably retained its form as established by 1100 until the reign of
John succeeded Richard as king in 1199, but his rule proved unpopular with many of his barons, who in response moved against him. In 1214, while the king was at Windsor Castle, Robert Fitzwalter led an army into London and laid siege to the Tower. Although under-garrisoned, the Tower resisted and the siege was lifted once John signed Magna Carta.[76] The king reneged on his promises of reform, leading to the outbreak of the First Barons' War. Even after Magna Carta was signed, Fitzwalter maintained his control of London. During the war, the Tower's garrison joined forces with the barons. John was deposed in 1216 and the barons offered the English throne to Prince Louis, the eldest son of the French king. However, after John's death in October 1216, many began to support the claim of his eldest son, Henry III. War continued between the factions supporting Louis and Henry, with Fitzwalter supporting Louis. Fitzwalter was still in control of London and the Tower, both of which held out until it was clear that Henry III's supporters would prevail.[76]
In the 13th century, Kings Henry III (1216–1272) and Edward I (1272–1307) extended the castle, essentially creating it as it stands today.[23] Henry was disconnected from his barons, and a mutual lack of understanding led to unrest and resentment towards his rule. As a result, he was eager to ensure the Tower of London was a formidable fortification; at the same time Henry was an aesthete and wished to make the castle a comfortable place to live.[77] From 1216 to 1227 nearly £10,000 was spent on the Tower of London; in this period, only the work at Windsor Castle cost more (£15,000). Most of the work was focused on the palatial buildings of the innermost ward.[22] The tradition of whitewashing the White Tower (from which it derives its name) began in 1240.[78]
Beginning around 1238, the castle was expanded to the east, north, and north-west. The work lasted through the reign of Henry III and into that of Edward I, interrupted occasionally by civil unrest. New creations included a new defensive perimeter, studded with towers, while on the west, north, and east sides, where the wall was not defended by the river, a defensive ditch was dug. The eastern extension took the castle beyond the bounds of the old Roman settlement, marked by the city wall which had been incorporated into the castle's defences.
Henry III often held court at the Tower of London, and held parliament there on at least two occasions (1236 and 1261) when he felt that the barons were becoming dangerously unruly. In 1258, the discontented barons, led by
Although he was rarely in London, Edward I undertook an expensive remodelling of the Tower, costing £21,000 between 1275 and 1285, over double that spent on the castle during the whole of Henry III's reign.
Later medieval period
During Edward II's reign (1307–1327) there was relatively little activity at the Tower of London.[90] However, it was during this period that the Privy Wardrobe was founded. The institution was based at the Tower and responsible for organising the state's arms.[91] In 1321, Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmere became the first woman imprisoned in the Tower of London after she refused Queen Isabella admittance to Leeds Castle[92] and ordered her archers to target Isabella, killing six of the royal escort.[93][94][95] Generally reserved for high-ranking inmates, the Tower was the most important royal prison in the country.[96] However it was not necessarily very secure, and throughout its history people bribed the guards to help them escape. In 1323, Roger Mortimer, Baron Mortimer, was aided in his escape from the Tower by the Sub-Lieutenant of the Tower who let Mortimer's men inside. They hacked a hole in his cell wall and Mortimer escaped to a waiting boat. He fled to France where he encountered Edward's Queen. They began an affair and plotted to overthrow the King.
One of Mortimer's first acts on entering England in 1326 was to capture the Tower and release the prisoners held there. For four years he ruled while
When Richard II was crowned in 1377, he led a procession from the Tower to Westminster Abbey. This tradition began in at least the early 14th century and lasted until 1660.[98] During the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 the Tower of London was besieged with the King inside. When Richard rode out to meet with Wat Tyler, the rebel leader, a crowd broke into the castle without meeting resistance and looted the Jewel House. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Simon Sudbury, took refuge in St John's Chapel, hoping the mob would respect the sanctuary. However, he was taken away and beheaded on Tower Hill.[101] Six years later there was again civil unrest, and Richard spent Christmas in the security of the Tower rather than Windsor as was more usual.[102] When Henry Bolingbroke returned from exile in 1399, Richard was imprisoned in the White Tower. He abdicated and was replaced on the throne by Bolingbroke, who became King Henry IV.[101] In the 15th century, there was little building work at the Tower of London, yet the castle still remained important as a place of refuge. When supporters of the late Richard II attempted a coup, Henry IV found safety in the Tower of London. During this period, the castle also held many distinguished prisoners. The heir to the Scottish throne, later King James I of Scotland, was kidnapped while journeying to France in 1406 and held in the Tower. The reign of Henry V (1413–1422) renewed England's fortune in the Hundred Years' War against France. As a result of Henry's victories, such as the Battle of Agincourt, many high-status prisoners were held in the Tower of London until they were ransomed.[103]
Much of the latter half of the 15th century was occupied by the
Shortly after the death of Edward IV in 1483, the notorious murder of the
Changing use
The beginning of the
During the reign of
In the 16th century, the Tower acquired an enduring reputation as a grim, forbidding prison. This had not always been the case. As a royal castle, it was used by the monarch to imprison people for various reasons, however these were usually high-status individuals for short periods rather than common citizenry as there were plenty of prisons elsewhere for such people. Contrary to the popular image of the Tower, prisoners were able to make their life easier by purchasing amenities such as better food or tapestries through the Lieutenant of the Tower.
Among those held and executed at the Tower was Anne Boleyn.[115] Although the Yeoman Warders were once the Royal Bodyguard, by the 16th and 17th centuries their main duty had become to look after the prisoners.[118] The Tower was often a safer place than other prisons in London such as the Fleet, where disease was rife. High-status prisoners could live in conditions comparable to those they might expect outside; one such example was that while Walter Raleigh was held in the Tower his rooms were altered to accommodate his family, including his son who was born there in 1605.[116] Executions were usually carried out on Tower Hill rather than in the Tower of London itself, and 112 people were executed on the hill over 400 years.[119] Before the 20th century, there had been seven executions within the castle on Tower Green; as was the case with Lady Jane Grey, this was reserved for prisoners for whom public execution was considered dangerous.[119] After Lady Jane Grey's execution on 12 February 1554,[120] Queen Mary I imprisoned her sister Elizabeth, later Queen Elizabeth I, in the Tower under suspicion of causing rebellion as Sir Thomas Wyatt had led a revolt against Mary in Elizabeth's name.[121]
The Office of Ordnance and Armoury Office were founded in the 15th century, taking over the Privy Wardrobe's duties of looking after the monarch's arsenal and valuables.[122] As there was no standing army before 1661, the importance of the royal armoury at the Tower of London was that it provided a professional basis for procuring supplies and equipment in times of war. The two bodies were resident at the Tower from at least 1454, and by the 16th century they had moved to a position in the inner ward.[123] The Board of Ordnance (successor to these Offices) had its headquarters in the White Tower and used surrounding buildings for storage. In 1855 the Board was abolished; its successor (the Military Store Department of the War Office) was also based there until 1869, after which its headquarters staff were relocated to the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich (where the recently closed Woolwich Dockyard was converted into a vast ordnance store).[124]
Political tensions between Charles I and Parliament in the second quarter of the 17th century led to an attempt by forces loyal to the King to secure the Tower and its valuable contents, including money and munitions. London's Trained Bands, a militia force, were moved into the castle in 1640. Plans for defence were drawn up and gun platforms were built, readying the Tower for war. The preparations were never put to the test. In 1642, Charles I attempted to arrest five members of parliament. When this failed he fled the city, and Parliament retaliated by removing Sir John Byron, the Lieutenant of the Tower. The Trained Bands had switched sides, and now supported Parliament; together with the London citizenry, they blockaded the Tower. With permission from the King, Byron relinquished control of the Tower. Parliament replaced Byron with a man of their own choosing, Sir John Conyers. By the time the English Civil War broke out in November 1642, the Tower of London was already in Parliament's control.[125]
The last monarch to uphold the tradition of taking a procession from the Tower to Westminster to be crowned was
When the Hanoverian dynasty ascended the throne, their situation was uncertain and with a possible Scottish rebellion in mind, the Tower of London was repaired. Most of the work in this period (1750 to 1770) was done by the King's Master Mason, John Deval.[128] Gun platforms added under the Stuarts had decayed. The number of guns at the Tower was reduced from 118 to 45, and one contemporary commentator noted that the castle "would not hold out four and twenty hours against an army prepared for a siege".[129] For the most part, the 18th-century work on the defences was spasmodic and piecemeal, although a new gateway in the southern curtain wall permitting access from the wharf to the outer ward was added in 1774. The moat surrounding the castle had become silted over the centuries since it was created despite attempts at clearing it. It was still an integral part of the castle's defences, so in 1830 the Constable of the Tower, the Duke of Wellington, ordered a large-scale clearance of several feet of silt. However this did not prevent an outbreak of disease in the garrison in 1841 caused by poor water supply, resulting in several deaths. To prevent the festering ditch posing further health problems, it was ordered that the moat should be drained and filled with earth. The work began in 1843 and was mostly complete two years later. The construction of the Waterloo Barracks in the inner ward began in 1845, when the Duke of Wellington laid the foundation stone. The building could accommodate 1,000 men; at the same time, separate quarters for the officers were built to the north-east of the White Tower. The building is now the headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers.[130] The popularity of the Chartist movement between 1828 and 1858 led to a desire to refortify the Tower of London in the event of civil unrest. It was the last major programme of fortification at the castle. Most of the surviving installations for the use of artillery and firearms date from this period.[131]
During the
Restoration and tourism
The Tower of London has become established as one of the most popular tourist attractions in the country. It has been a tourist attraction since at least the Elizabethan period, when it was one of the sights of London that foreign visitors wrote about. Its most popular attractions were the Royal Menagerie and displays of armour. The Crown Jewels also garner much interest, and have been on public display since 1669. The Tower steadily gained popularity with tourists through the 19th century, despite the opposition of the Duke of Wellington to visitors. Numbers became so high that by 1851 a purpose-built ticket office was erected. By the end of the century, over 500,000 were visiting the castle every year.[138]
Over the 18th and 19th centuries, the palatial buildings were slowly adapted for other uses and demolished. Only the Wakefield and St Thomas's Towers survived.[126] The 18th century marked an increasing interest in England's medieval past. One of the effects was the emergence of Gothic Revival architecture. In the Tower's architecture, this was manifest when the New Horse Armoury was built in 1825 against the south face of the White Tower. It featured elements of Gothic Revival architecture such as battlements. Other buildings were remodelled to match the style and the Waterloo Barracks were described as "castellated Gothic of the 15th century".[139][140] Between 1845 and 1885 institutions such as the Mint which had inhabited the castle for centuries moved to other sites; many of the post-medieval structures left vacant were demolished. In 1855, the War Office took over responsibility for manufacture and storage of weapons from the Ordnance Office, which was gradually phased out of the castle. At the same time, there was greater interest in the history of the Tower of London.[139]
Public interest was partly fuelled by contemporary writers, of whom the work of
Although only one bomb fell on the Tower of London in the First World War (it landed harmlessly in the moat), the Second World War left a greater mark. On 23 September 1940, during the Blitz, high-explosive bombs damaged the castle, destroying several buildings and narrowly missing the White Tower. After the war, the damage was repaired and the Tower of London was reopened to the public.[142]
A 1974 bombing in the White Tower Mortar Room left one person dead and 41 injured. No one claimed responsibility for the blast, but the police investigated suspicions that the IRA was behind it.[143]
In the 21st century, tourism is the Tower's primary role, with the remaining routine military activities, under the Royal Logistic Corps, having wound down in the latter half of the 20th century and moved out of the castle.[142] However, the Tower is still home to the regimental headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, and the museum dedicated to it and its predecessor, the Royal Fusiliers.[144][145] Also, a detachment of the unit providing the King's Guard at Buckingham Palace still mounts a guard at the Tower, and with the Yeomen Warders, takes part in the Ceremony of the Keys each day.[146][147][148] On several occasions through the year gun salutes are fired from the Tower by the Honourable Artillery Company, these consist of 62 rounds for royal occasions, and 41 on other occasions.[149]
Since 1990, the Tower of London has been cared for by an independent charity, Historic Royal Palaces, which receives no funding from the Government or the Crown.[150] In 1988, the Tower of London was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites, in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site.[151][152] However, recent developments, such as the construction of skyscrapers nearby, have pushed the Tower towards being added to the United Nations' Heritage in Danger List.[153] The remains of the medieval palace have been open to the public since 2006 where visitors can explore the restored chambers.[154] Although the position of Constable of the Tower remains the highest position held at the Tower,[155] the responsibility of day-to-day administration is delegated to the Resident Governor.[156] The Constable is appointed for a five-year term; this is primarily a ceremonial post today but the Constable is also a trustee of Historic Royal Palaces and of the Royal Armouries. General Sir Gordon Messenger was appointed Constable in 2022.[157]
At least
Garrison
The Yeomen Warders provided the permanent garrison of the Tower, but the
The earliest surviving reference to the inhabitants of the Tower Hamlets having a duty to provide a guard for the Tower of London is from 1554, during the reign of
Crown Jewels
The tradition of housing the Crown Jewels in the Tower of London probably dates from the reign of Henry III (1216–1272). The Jewel House was built specifically to house the royal regalia, including jewels, plate, and symbols of royalty such as the crown, sceptre, and sword. When money needed to be raised, the treasure could be pawned by the monarch. The treasure allowed the monarch independence from the aristocracy and consequently was closely guarded. A new position for "keeper of the jewels, armouries and other things" was created,[163] which was well rewarded; in the reign of Edward III (1327–1377) the holder was paid 12d a day. The position grew to include other duties including purchasing royal jewels, gold, and silver, and appointing royal goldsmiths and jewellers.[163]
In 1649, during the
When the monarchy was
In 1669, the Jewel House was demolished[28] and the Crown Jewels moved into Martin Tower (until 1841).[167] They were displayed here for viewing by the paying public. This was exploited two years later when Colonel Thomas Blood attempted to steal them.[138] Blood and his accomplices bound and gagged the Jewel House keeper. Although they laid their hands on the Imperial State Crown, Sceptre and Orb, they were foiled when the keeper's son turned up unexpectedly and raised the alarm.[164][168]
Since 1994, the Crown Jewels have been on display in the Jewel House in the Waterloo Block. Some of the pieces were once regularly used by Queen Elizabeth II. The display includes 23,578 gemstones, the 800-year-old Coronation Spoon, St Edward's Crown (traditionally placed on a monarch's head at the moment of crowning) and the Imperial State Crown.[169][170][171]
Royal Menagerie
There is evidence that King John (1166–1216) first started keeping wild animals at the Tower.[172][173] Records of 1210–1212 show payments to lion keepers.[174]
The Royal
In 1288, Edward I added a lion and a lynx and appointed the first official Keeper of the animals.[179] Edward III added other types of animals, two lions, a leopard and two wildcats. Under subsequent kings, the number of animals grew to include additional cats of various types, jackals, hyenas, and an old brown bear, Max, gifted to Henry VIII by Emperor Maximilian.[180] In 1436, during the time of Henry VI, all the lions died and the employment of Keeper William Kerby was terminated.[179]
Historical records indicate that a semi-circular structure or barbican was built by Edward I in 1277; this area was later named the Lion Tower, to the immediate west of the Middle Tower. Records from 1335 indicate the purchase of a lock and key for the lions and leopards, also suggesting they were located near the western entrance of the Tower. By the 1500s that area was called the Menagerie.[174] Between 1604 and 1606 the Menagerie was extensively refurbished and an exercise yard was created in the moat area beside the Lion Tower. An overhead platform was added for viewing of the lions by the royals, during lion baiting, for example in the time of James I. Reports from 1657 include mention of six lions, increasing to 11 by 1708, in addition to other types of cats, eagles, owls and a jackal.[174]
By the 18th century, the menagerie was open to the public; admission cost three half-pence or a cat or dog to be fed to the lions. By the end of the century, that had increased to 9 pence.[174][181] A particularly famous inhabitant was Old Martin, a large grizzly bear given to George III by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1811.[182][183] An 1800 inventory also listed a tiger, leopards, a hyena, a large baboon, various types of monkeys, wolves, and "other animals".[184] By 1822, however, the collection included only a grizzly bear, an elephant, and some birds. Additional animals were then introduced.[185] In 1828, there were over 280 representing at least 60 species as the new keeper Alfred Copps was actively acquiring animals.[186]
After the death of
In 1999, physical evidence of lion cages was found, one being 2x3 metres (6.5x10 feet) in size, very small for a lion that can grow to be 2.5 meters (approximately 8 feet) long.[175] In 2008, the skulls of two male Barbary lions (now extinct in the wild) from northwest Africa were found in the moat area of the Tower. Radiocarbon tests dated them from 1280 to 1385 and 1420–1480.[173] In 2011, an exhibition was hosted at the Tower with fine wire sculptures by Kendra Haste.[192]
In folklore
The Tower of London has been represented in popular culture in many ways. As a result of 16th and 19th century writers, the Tower has a reputation as a grim fortress, a place of torture and execution.[115]
One of the earliest traditions associated with the Tower was that it was built by Julius Caesar; the story was popular amongst writers and antiquaries. The earliest recorded attribution of the Tower to the Roman ruler dates to the mid-14th century in a poem by Sir Thomas Gray.[193] The origin of the myth is uncertain, although it may be related to the fact that the Tower was built in the corner of London's Roman walls. Another possibility is that someone misread a passage from Gervase of Tilbury in which he says Caesar built a tower at Odnea in France. Gervase wrote Odnea as Dodres, which is close to the French for London, Londres.[194] Today, the story survives in William Shakespeare's Richard II and Richard III,[195] and as late as the 18th century some still regarded the Tower as built by Caesar.[196]
See also
- Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
- Constable of the Tower
- List of buildings that survived the Great Fire of London
- List of castles in England
- List of prisoners of the Tower of London
- Zammitello Palace, built in imitation of the Tower of London
References
Explanatory notes
Citations
- ^ "British Museum is the most-visited UK attraction again". BBC News. Retrieved 18 March 2024.
- ^ "History". Historic Royal Palaces. Retrieved 22 July 2013.
- ^ Tower of London Frequently Asked Questions, Historic Royal Palaces, archived from the original on 27 December 2013, retrieved 2 December 2015
- ^ Vince 1990 in Creighton 2002, p. 138
- ^ Creighton 2002, p. 138
- ^ Parnell 1993, p. 11
- ^ a b Parnell 1993, pp. 32–33
- ^ Wilson 1998, p. 39
- ^ Parnell 1993, p. 49
- ^ Friar 2003, p. 163
- ^ Allen Brown 1976, p. 15
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General bibliography
- Allen Brown, Reginald (1976) [1954]. Allen Brown's English Castles. The Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-069-6.
- Allen Brown, Reginald; Curnow, P (1984). Tower of London, Greater London: Department of the Environment Official Handbook. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. ISBN 978-0-11-671148-9.
- Bennett, Matthew (2001). Campaigns of the Norman Conquest. Essential Histories. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-228-9.
- Black, Ernest (1927). Torture under English Law. Vol. 75. University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law Register. pp. 344–348. doi:10.2307/3307506.
- Blunt, Wilfred (1976). The Ark in the Park: The Zoo in the Nineteenth Century. Hamish Hamilton. ISBN 978-0-241-89331-9.
- Bowle, John Edward (1964). Henry VIII: A Biography. Allen & Unwin.
- Cathcart King, David James (1988). The Castle in England and Wales: an Interpretative History. Croom Helm. ISBN 978-0-918400-08-6.
- Collinson, Patrick (2004). "Elizabeth I (1533–1603), Queen of England and Ireland". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
- Costain, Thomas (1958). The Three Edwards. Garden City.
- Creighton, Oliver (2002). Castles and Landscapes. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-5896-4.
- Farson, Daniel (1978). Ghosts in Fact and Fiction. Hamlyn Young Books. ISBN 978-0-600-34053-9.
- Friar, Stephen (2003). The Sutton Companion to Castles. Sutton Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7509-3994-2.
- ISBN 978-0-300-09404-6.
- Hole, Christina (1951). Haunted England: A Survey of English Ghost-Lore (3 ed.). Batsford.
- Horrox, Rosemary (2004). "Edward V (1470–1483), king of England and lord of Ireland". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
- ISBN 978-1-85894-106-6.
- Jerome, Fiona (2006). Tales from the Tower: Secrets and Stories from a Gory and Glorious Past. Think Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84525-026-3.
- Lapper, Ivan; Parnell, Geoffrey (2000). The Tower of London: A 2000-year History. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-170-1.
- Liddiard, Robert (2005). Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500. Windgather Press. ISBN 978-0-9545575-2-2.
- Michette, Martin; Viles, Heather; Vlachou, Constantina; Angus, Ian (8 August 2020). "The many faces of Reigate Stone: an assessment of variability in historic masonry based on Medieval London's principal freestone" (PDF). Heritage Science. 8 (1). ISSN 2050-7445.
- Nearing, Homer Jr. (April 1948). "Julius Caesar and the Tower of London". Modern Language Notes. Vol. 63. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 228–233. doi:10.2307/2908562.
- Osbourne, Mike (2012). Defending London: A Military History from Conquest to Cold War. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-6465-7.
- Parnell, Geoffrey (1993). The Tower of London. Batsford. ISBN 978-0-7134-6864-9.
- Plowden, Alison (2004). "Grey (married name Dudley), Lady Jane (1537–1554)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
- Roud, Steve (2009) [2008]. London Lore: The Legends and Traditions of the World's Most Vibrant City. Arrow Books. ISBN 978-0-09-951986-7.
- Sax, Boria (2007). How Ravens Came to the Tower of London (PDF). Vol. 15. Society and Animals. pp. 269–283. doi:10.1163/156853007X217203. Archived from the original(PDF) on 27 July 2011.
- Sellers, Leonard (1997). Shot in the Tower:The Story of the Spies executed in the Tower of London during the First World War. Leo Cooper. ISBN 978-1-84884-026-3.
- Strickland, Agnes (1840). Lives of the Queens of England from the Norman Conquest. Volume II. Vol. II. Henry Colburn.
- ISBN 9781473510807.
- Vince, Alan (1990). Saxon London: An Archaeological Investigation. Seaby. ISBN 978-1-85264-019-4.
- Weir, Alison (2008). Henry VIII: The King and His Court. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-43708-2.
- Wilson, Derek (1998) [1978]. The Tower of London: A Thousand Years (2nd ed.). Allison & Busby. ISBN 978-0-7490-0332-6.
Further reading
- Bennett, Edward Turner (1829). The Tower Menagerie: Comprising the Natural History of the Animals Contained in that Establishment; with Anecdotes of their Characters and History. Robert Jennings.
- Harman, A. (1864). Sketches of the Tower of London as a Fortress, a Prison, and a Palace. J. Wheeler.
- Parnell, Geoffrey (2009). The Tower of London: Past & Present. History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-5036-0.
External links
- Official website
- Further reading recommended by Historic Royal Palaces (archived 11 May 2010)
- Bibliography of sources relating to the Tower of London
- Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. .