Native American genocide in the United States
Native American genocide in the United States | |
---|---|
Location | United States |
Target | Native Americans |
Attack type | Genocide, mass murder, forced displacement, ethnic cleansing, collective punishment, starvation, others |
Deaths | |
Victims |
|
Perpetrators | United States
|
Motive |
The destruction of Native American peoples, cultures, and languages has been characterized as genocide. Debates are ongoing as to whether the entire process and which specific periods or events meet the definitions of genocide or not. Many of these definitions focus on intent, while others focus on outcomes.[6] Raphael Lemkin, who coined the term "genocide", considered the displacement of Native Americans by European settlers as a historical example of genocide.[7] Others, like historian Gary Anderson, contend that genocide does not accurately characterize any aspect of American history, suggesting instead that ethnic cleansing is a more appropriate term.[8]
Historians have long debated the pre-European population of the Americas.[9][10] In 2023, historian Ned Blackhawk suggested that North America's population had halved from 1492 to 1776 from about 8 million people to under 4 million.[3] Russell Thornton estimated that by 1800, some 600,000 Native Americans lived in the regions that would become the modern United States and declined to an estimated 250,000 by 1890 before rebounding.[4]
The population decline among Native Americans in the 19th century can be attributed to various factors, including Eurasian diseases like
Background
Population estimates for the pre-Columbian U.S. territory generally range from between 1 and 5 million people. Prominent cultures in the historical period before colonization included:
In the classification of the
The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were of many nations and tribal affiliations, each with distinctive cultural and political identities, but they shared certain beliefs, traditions, and practices, such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol. Their gift-giving feast, potlatch, is a highly complex event where people gather to commemorate special events. These events include the raising of a totem pole or the appointment or election of a new chief. The most famous artistic feature of the culture is the totem pole, with carvings of animals and other characters to commemorate cultural beliefs, legends, and notable events.
The
Numerous pre-Columbian societies were urbanized, such as the
Colonial massacres
Attempted extermination of the Pequot
The Pequot War was an armed conflict that took place between 1636 and 1638 in New England between the
The war concluded with the decisive defeat of the Pequots. The colonies of
The English colonists imposed a harshly punitive treaty on the estimated 2,500 Pequots who survived the war; the
Massacre of the Narragansett people
The Great Swamp Massacre was committed during
French and Indian War and Pontiac's War
On June 12, 1755, during the
Ethnic cleansing
Sullivan Expedition
In 1779, the Continental Army under the command of John Sullivan and James Clinton conducted a series of scorched earth campaigns against the four British-allied nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, displacing 5,000 Iroquoian refugees.
Manifest destiny
Only the federal government could purchase Indian lands, and this was done through treaties with tribal leaders. Whether a tribe actually had a decision-making structure capable of making a treaty was a controversial issue. The national policy was for the Indians to join American society and become "civilized", which meant no more wars with neighboring tribes or raids on white settlers or travelers, and a shift from hunting to farming and ranching. Advocates of civilization programs believed that the process of settling native tribes would greatly reduce the amount of land needed by the Native Americans, making more land available for homesteading by white Americans. Thomas Jefferson believed that the Indigenous people of America had to assimilate and live like the whites or inevitably be pushed aside by them.[45][46] Once Jefferson believed that assimilation was no longer possible, he advocated for the extermination or displacement of Indigenous people.[47] Following the forced removal of many Indigenous peoples, Americans increasingly believed that Native American ways of life would eventually disappear as the United States expanded.[48] Humanitarian advocates of removal believed that American Indians would be better off moving away from whites.
As historian Reginald Horsman argued in his influential study Race and Manifest Destiny, racial rhetoric increased during the era of manifest destiny. Americans increasingly believed that Native American ways of life would "fade away" as the United States expanded. As an example, this idea was reflected in the work of one of America's first great historians, Francis Parkman, whose landmark book The Conspiracy of Pontiac was published in 1851.[49] Parkman wrote that after the French defeat in the French and Indian War, Indians were "destined to melt and vanish before the advancing waves of Anglo-American power, which now rolled westward unchecked and unopposed". Parkman emphasized that the collapse of Indian power in the late 18th century had been swift and was a past event.[50]
While some literary works, like those of James Fenimore Cooper, portrayed Native Americans positively, others did not: Mark Twain, for example, was overwhelmingly negative in his characterizations, and seeking to counter the trope of the "Noble Aborigine" in 1870[51] went so far as to write that the "Noble Red Man" was "[...] nothing but a poor filthy, naked scurvy vagabond, whom to exterminate were a charity to the Creator's worthier insects and reptiles which he oppresses".[52][53]
Trail of Tears
The
Chalk and Jonassohn assert that the deportation of the Cherokee tribe along the Trail of Tears would almost certainly be considered an act of genocide today.[62] The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the exodus. About 17,000 Cherokees, along with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaves, were removed from their homes.[63] Historians such as David Stannard[64] and Barbara Mann[65] have noted that the army deliberately routed the march of the Cherokee to pass through areas of a known cholera epidemic, such as Vicksburg. Stannard estimates that during the forced removal from their homelands, following the Indian Removal Act signed into law by President Andrew Jackson in 1830, 8,000 Cherokee died, about half the total population.[66]
Indiana
Throughout the first half of the 19th century, several Native American groups such as the Potawatomi and Miami were expelled from their homelands in Indiana under the Indian Removal Act.[67][68] The Potawatomi Trail of Death alone led to the deaths of over 40 individuals.[69][70][71]
Long Walk
The
Yavapai Exodus
In 1886, many of the Yavapai ethnic group joined in campaigns by the US Army, as scouts, against
Reservation system
Indian removal policies led to the current day reservation system which allocated territories to individual tribes. According to scholar Dina Gilio-Whitaker, "the treaties also created reservations that would confine Native people into smaller territories far smaller than they had for millenia been accustomed to, diminishing their ability to feed themselves."[80] According to author and scholar David Rich Lewis, these reservations had much higher population densities than indigenous homelands. As a result, "the consolidation of native peoples in the 19th century allowed epidemic diseases to rage through their communities."[81] In addition to this "a result of changing subsistence patterns and environments-contributed to an explosion of dietary-related illness like diabetes, vitamin and mineral deficiencies, cirrhosis, obesity, gallbladder disease, hypertension, and heart disease".[81]
Once their territories were incorporated into the United States, surviving Native Americans were denied equality before the law and often treated as wards of the state.
Genocidal campaigns
Stacie Martin states that the United States has not been legally admonished by the international community for genocidal acts against its Indigenous population, but many historians and academics describe events such as the Mystic massacre, the Trail of Tears, the Sand Creek massacre and the Mendocino War as genocidal in nature.[87]
Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz states that U.S. history, as well as inherited Indigenous trauma, cannot be understood without dealing with the genocide that the United States committed against Indigenous peoples. From the colonial period through the founding of the United States and continuing in the twentieth century, this has entailed torture, terror, sexual abuse, massacres, systematic military occupations, removals of Indigenous peoples from their ancestral territories via Indian removal policies, forced removal of Native American children to boarding schools, allotment, and a policy of termination.[88]
The letters exchanged between Bouquet and Amherst during the
Historian Jeffrey Ostler describes the Colorado territorial militia's slaughter of Cheyennes at
California
The U.S. colonization of California started in earnest in 1845, with the Mexican–American War. With the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, it gave the United States authority over 525,000 square miles of new territory. In addition to the Gold Rush slaughter, there was also a large number of state-subsidized massacres by colonists against Native Americans in the territory, causing several entire ethnic groups to be wiped out. In one such series of conflicts, the so-called Mendocino War and the subsequent Round Valley War, the entirety of the Yuki people was brought to the brink of extinction. From a previous population of some 3,500 people, fewer than 100 members of the Yuki tribe were left. According to Russell Thornton, estimates of the pre-Columbian population of California may have been as high as 300,000.
By 1849, due to a number of epidemics, the number had decreased to 150,000. But from 1849 and up until 1890 the indigenous population of California had fallen below 20,000, primarily because of the killings.[93] At least 4,500 California Indians were killed between 1849 and 1870, while many more perished due to disease and starvation.[94] 10,000 Indians were also kidnapped and sold as slaves.[95] In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide. Newsom said, "That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books."[96]
Whites hunted down adult Indians in the mountains, kidnapped their children, and sold them as apprentices for as little as $50. Indians could not complain in court because of another California statute that stated that 'no Indian or Black or Mulatto person was permitted to give evidence in favor of or against a white person'. One contemporary wrote, "The miners are sometimes guilty of the most brutal acts with the Indians... such incidents have fallen under my notice that would make humanity weep and men disown their race".[97] The towns of Marysville and Honey Lake paid bounties for Indian scalps. Shasta City offered $5 for every Indian head brought to City Hall; California's State Treasury reimbursed many of the local governments for their expenses.
American Indian wars
During the Indian Wars, the American Army carried out a number of massacres and forced relocations of Indigenous peoples that are sometimes considered genocide.[98] Jeffrey Ostler, the Beekman Professor of Northwest and Pacific History at the University of Oregon, stated the American Indian War "was genocidal war".[99] Xabier Irujo, professor of genocide studies at the University of Nevada, Reno, stated, "the toll on human lives in the wars against the native nations between 1848 and 1881 was horrific."[100] Notable conflicts in this period include the Dakota War, Great Sioux War, Comanche campaign, Snake War and Colorado War. These conflicts occurred in the United States from the time of the earliest colonial settlements in the 17th century until the end of the 19th century. The wars resulted from several factors, the most common being the desire of settlers and governments for Indian tribes' lands.
The 1864
Cultural genocide
In reference to colonialism in the United States, Raphael Lemkin stated that the "colonial enslavement of American Indians was a cultural genocide."[103] He also stated that colonialism in the United States comprised an "effective and thorough method of destroying a culture and de-socializing human beings". Lemkin drew a distinction between "cultural change and cultural genocide".[103] He defined the former as a slow and gradual process of transition to new situations, and he saw the latter as the result of a radical and violent change that necessitated "the pre-meditated goal of those committing cultural genocide". Lemkin believed that cultural genocide occurs only when there are "surgical operations on cultures and deliberate assassinations of civilizations".[103]
According to Vincent Schilling, many people are aware of historical atrocities that were committed against his people, but there is an "extensive amount of misunderstanding about Native American and First Nations people's history." He added that Native Americans have also suffered a "cultural genocide" because of colonization's residual effects.[104]
The American-Indian experience in North America is defined as comprising physical and cultural disintegration. That fact becomes clear when one examines how law and colonialism were used as tools of genocide, both physically and culturally.[103] According to Luana Ross the assumption that law (a Euro-American construct) and its administration are prejudiced against particular groups of individuals is critical for understanding Native American criminality and the experiences of Natives imprisoned.[105] For instance, in Georgia, the 1789 act permitted indiscriminate massacre of Creek Indians by proclaiming them to be outside the state's protection. Apart from physical annihilation, the State promoted acculturation by introducing legislation limiting land entitlements to Indians who had abandoned tribal citizenship.[103]
Throughout the writing of the Genocide Convention, the United States was adamantly opposed to the addition of cultural genocide, even threatening to block the treaty's approval if cultural genocide was included in the final text.[106]
Forced assimilation
The
The report described the system as part of a federal policy aimed at eradicating the identity of Indigenous communities and confiscating their lands. Abuse was widespread at the schools, as was overcrowding, malnutrition, disease and lack of adequate healthcare.[109][108] The report documented over 500 child deaths at 19 schools, although it is estimated the total number could rise to thousands, and possibly even tens of thousands.[107] Marked or unmarked burial sites were discovered at 53 schools.[109] The school system has been described as a cultural genocide and a racist dehumanization.[108]
Femicide
Missing and murdered
In the United States, Native American women are more than twice as likely to experience violence than any other demographic.[110][111] One in three Indigenous women is sexually assaulted during her life, and 67% of these assaults are perpetrated by non-Native perpetrators.[112][113][114][115][116][b] According to research from the National Institute of Justice, it was found that American Indian women are 1.2 times as likely to experience lifetime violence, 1.8 times as likely to be a victim of stalking, and 1.7 times as likely to be victims of violence in the past year compared to the Non-Hispanic White population.[111] Lisa Brunner, executive director of Sacred Spirits First National Coalition states, "What's happened through US Federal law and policy is they created lands of impunity where this is like a playground for serial rapists, batterers, killers, whoever and our children aren't protected at all."[118]
Sterilization
The
Memory and legacy
The United States has to date not undertaken any truth commission nor built a memorial for the genocide of Indigenous people.[120] It does not acknowledge nor compensate for the historical violence against Native Americans that occurred during territorial expansion to the West Coast.[120] American museums such as the Smithsonian Institution do not dedicate a section to the genocide.[120] In 2013, the National Congress of American Indians passed a resolution to create a space for the National American Indian Holocaust Museum inside the Smithsonian, but it was ignored by the latter.[120]
Historiography
American historian Ned Blackhawk said that nationalist historiographies have been forms of denial that erase the history of destruction of European colonial expansion. Blackhawk said that near consensus has emerged that genocide against some Indigenous peoples took place in North America following colonization.[121]
In An American Genocide, Benjamin Madley argues that Indigenous resistance to genocidal campaigns has resulted in these campaigns as being inaccurately described as war or battles, instead of genocidal massacres.[122]
David Moshman, a professor at University of Nebraska–Lincoln, highlighted the lack of awareness of the American public, stating, "The nations of the Americas remain virtually oblivious to their emergence from a series of genocides that were deliberately aimed at, and succeeded in eliminating, hundreds of Indigenous cultures."[123]
See also
- Colonialism and genocide
- Contemporary Native American issues in the United States
- Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples
- Genocide of indigenous peoples
- Genocides in history (before World War I)#United States
- Historical racial and ethnic demographics of the United States
- History of Native Americans in the United States
- Indigenous peoples in Canada
- Indigenous peoples of Mexico
- Indigenous response to colonialism
- List of ethnic cleansing campaigns
- List of genocides
- List of Indian massacres in North America
- List of massacres in the United States
- Mass racial violence in the United States
- Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
- Race and ethnicity in the United States
- Racism against Native Americans in the United States
- Racism in Canada
- Racism in Mexico
- Racism in North America
- Racism in the United States
- Thomas Jefferson and Native Americans
- Black genocide in the United States – the notion that African Americans have been subjected to genocide because of racism against African Americans
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A previously reported statistic that, "Among [American Indian and Alaska Native] victims of rape or sexual assault, 86 percent described the offender as non-Indian" is accurate according to Perry's analysis (2004) in American Indians and Crime: A BJS Statistical Profile, 1992–2002. However, Perry's analysis includes reports by both Native men and women victims of rape or sexual assault. Given this brief's focus on violence against Native women, we include the updated rate of 67 percent reported by Native women victims of rape or sexual assault indicated in Bachman, et al., (2008).
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Table A.5: American Indian or Alaska Native Female Victims: Sexual violence in lifetime by interracial perpetrator confidence interval (likelihood) weighted estimate (weighed based on percentage of population) 91.9% to 100.5% and intraracial perpetrator 10.8% to 30.4%
- from the original on October 30, 2019. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
Natives are more likely to be victims of crime than are any other group in the United States. People of a different race committed 70% of violent victimizations against Natives. The report also notes the rate of violent crime experienced by Native women between 1992 and 1996 was nearly 50% higher than that reported by African American males, long known to experience very high rates of violent victimization. According to the Department of Justice, 70% of sexual assaults of Native women are never reported, which suggests that the number of violent victimizations of Native women is higher (Ibid.).
- ^ Chekuru, Kavitha (March 6, 2013). "Sexual violence scars Native American Women". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on November 17, 2019. Retrieved May 9, 2016.
According to the Department of Justice, 86 percent of rapes and sexual assaults against Native American women are committed by non-Native American men.
- ^ "ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates – 2011–2015". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved December 23, 2019.
- ^ Waghorn, Dominic (April 6, 2015). "Law Targets Abuse Of Native American Women". Sky News. Sky UK. Archived from the original on January 12, 2020. Retrieved January 12, 2020.
- ^ a b Theobald, Brianna (November 28, 2019). "A 1970 Law Led to the Mass Sterilization of Native American Women. That History Still Matters". Time. Archived from the original on April 26, 2022.
- ^ a b c d d'Errico, Peter (January 10, 2017). "Native American Genocide or Holocaust?". Indian Country Today. Archived from the original on March 24, 2022.
- ^ Blackhawk, Ned; Kiernan, Ben; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe, eds. (2023). Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Pp 38,44. The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. II. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-48643-9.
- ISBN 978-0300181364.
- S2CID 143561036.
Notes
- ^ While estimates vary widely, historians, including Joan Marsh-Thornton, place the pre-1492 population of the present-day United States at around 5 million.[1] The Native population in the U.S. reached its lowest point in 1900 at 237,000.[2]
- ^ Native Americans constituted 0.7% of U.S. population in 2015.[117]
Externals links
- Media related to Native American genocide at Wikimedia Commons