Oran fatwa
Oran fatwa | |
---|---|
Created | 1 Rajab 910 AH (c. 8 December 1504 CE) |
Location | Extant copies (including translations) kept in: Vatican City |
Author(s) | Ahmad ibn Abi Jum'ah |
Subject | Relaxations of sharia requirements for Spanish Muslims who were forced to become Christians, when necessary to survive |
The Oran fatwa was a
The fatwa sets out detailed relaxations of
The fatwa enjoyed wide currency among Spanish Muslims and Moriscos—Muslims nominally converted to Christianity and their descendants; one of its surviving aljamiado translations was dated at 1564, six decades after it was first issued.[6] The fatwa has been described as the "key theological document" to understand the practice of Spanish Muslims following the Reconquista up to the expulsion of the Moriscos in the early 17th century.[1][4]
The influence of the Oran fatwa was limited to Spain:
Background
Islam existed in Spain since the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in the eighth century. At the beginning of the twelfth century, the Muslim population in the Iberian Peninsula, called al-Andalus in Arabic, was estimated to number up to 5.5 million, among whom were Arabs, Berbers and indigenous converts.[8] In the next few centuries, as the Christians pushed from the north in a process called the Reconquista, the Muslim population declined.[9] At the end of the fifteenth century, the Reconquista culminated in the fall of Granada, and the total number of Muslims in Spain was estimated to be between 500,000 and 600,000 out of the total Spanish population of 7 to 8 million.[8] Approximately half of the Muslims lived in the former Emirate of Granada, the last independent Muslim state in Spain, which had been annexed to the Crown of Castile.[8] About 20,000 Muslims lived in other territories of Castile, and most of the remainder lived in the territories of the Crown of Aragon.[10]
Prior to the completion of the Reconquista, the defeated Muslims were generally given
Some Muslims, especially those living near the southern coast, took the option of exile,[15] but for most, publicly converting to Christianity while secretly continuing to believe and practise Islam was the only available option for surviving as Muslims.[16] The population converted en masse, and by 1501 the entire Muslim population of Granada was nominally converted to Christianity.[17][18] The apparent success of Granada's forced conversions triggered a series of edicts and proclamations in 1501 and 1502, which effectively put the Muslims elsewhere in Castile to the same fate.[18] These new converts, along with their descendants, were known by Spanish sources as the Moriscos.[19] As well as having to accept Christianity and abandon the Islamic faith and rituals, they were also pressured to conform to Christian ways, including by attending church, sending their children to be instructed in the Christian doctrine, and partaking of food and beverages forbidden by Islamic law.[20]
Previous Islamic legal opinions
Prior to the Oran fatwa, the predominant position of Islamic scholars had been that a Muslim could not stay in a country where rulers made proper religious observance impossible.[21] Therefore, a Muslim's obligation was to leave, when they were able to do so.[6] Even before the systematic forcible conversion, religious leaders had argued that Muslims in Christian territory would be subject to direct and indirect pressure, and preached emigration as a way to protect the religion from erosion.[22] Notably, the contemporary Algerian scholar Ahmad al-Wansharisi, who was considered the leading authority on the subject of Muslims in Spain,[23] wrote in 1491 that emigrating from Christian to Muslim lands was compulsory in almost all circumstances.[22] Further, al-Wansharisi urged severe punishment for the Muslims who remained and predicted that they would temporarily dwell in hell in the afterlife.[24]
Authorship
The surviving translations of the fatwa give the name of the author in various slightly different forms. All of them are thought to be derived from the
Al-Wahrani drafted the fatwa in response to a request of legal opinion, in other words, as a
Content
The opening of the fatwa displayed sympathy to the Muslims of Spain, who kept their religious faith despite the suffering and risk that this posed them. The mufti (author of the fatwa) exhorted that they continue to adhere to the religion of Islam and instruct it to their children when the latter reached maturity.[1]
The fatwa reaffirmed the obligation of Spanish Muslims to perform salah (ritual prayer), zakat (almsgiving), and ghusl (major ritual ablution), even if they could not be performed in the correct form.[30] It described the obligation of the ritual prayers – normally performed by standing, bowing, prostrating, and sitting in a prescribed sequence – even if done only by making slight movements.[30] The fatwa also allowed the omission of the prayers – normally performed an obligatory five times a day at prescribed times – when they were prevented from doing so, and instructed them to make up the missed prayers at night instead.[30] It also provided instructions for performing tayammum (waterless ritual purification) when ritually pure water was not available to replace the wudu (minor ritual ablution) that is ordinarily required before performing salah.[30] When tayammum was impossible, even making slight pointing motions with hands or face toward clean earth, stone, or tree was acceptable.[30]
The fatwa also maintained the Islamic obligation to give the ritual charity (zakat) – normally calculated and distributed in a specific manner prescribed by the sharia (Islamic law) – even if this could only be done by showing generosity to a beggar.[30] It affirmed the obligation of the ritual ablution (ghusl), "even though by plunging into the sea".[30]
The fatwa permitted Muslims outwardly to participate in Christian rituals and worship, so long as they inwardly considered them to be forbidden. When the Muslims had to prostrate to Christian idols, they were to internally desire to perform the Islamic prayer, even if not actually
The fatwa also allowed Spain's Muslims to consume
At the end of the fatwa, the author encouraged the Muslims to write to the mufti about anything else that presented difficulty to them, so that he could give further legal opinions. The fatwa discreetly did not name any specific recipient, and instead designated the persons it was addressed to byal-ghuraba (those living abroad) yet near to God.[1]
Reactions
Impact in Spain
The fatwa appeared to enjoy wide currency within the Muslim and Morisco community in various kingdoms of Spain, for it was translated and copied as late as 1563 and 1609.[4][6] The full geographical reach of the text is unknown, but it appeared to be originally addressed to the Muslims (or Moriscos) of Castile as a response to their forced conversions in 1500–1502.[6] After the forced conversion was extended to the Crown of Aragon in the 1520s, the fatwa likely circulated there, too.[6]
The opinion formed the basis of the Moriscos' Islamic status and practices for more than a century, until
The influence of the fatwa was limited to Spain.
Scholarly analysis
Modern scholars of Spanish Islamic history stressed the historical importance of the fatwa. Harvey called it "the key theological document" for the study of Spanish Islam following the forced conversions, a description which Stewart repeated.[1][4] Mercedes García-Arenal and Fernando Rodríguez Mediano, historians of Spain and Western Muslims, described the fatwa as "famous" and called it "one of the most important theological texts of later Spanish Islam".[27] Spanish literature scholar María del Mar Rosa-Rodríguez considered the fatwa important because it officially documented "the existence of religiosities that do not depend on traditional ritual practice".[36]
Harvey and Stewart said that the fatwa was a departure from the previous legal opinions among Islamic scholars, which typically emphasised the obligation to emigrate from any country where proper religious observance was not possible.
Harvey did not consider the fatwa as a permanent and universal relaxation of the sharia; instead, the sender and the recipients of the fatwa must have seen its provisions as temporary expedients under extraordinary circumstances intended to help the Muslims of Spain through the crisis.[6] The fatwa began by affirming in orthodox terms the obligations of all Muslims,[30] and ended by expressing hopes that Islam may again be practised openly without ordeals, tribulations and fear.[39] The mufti and many Moriscos expected or hoped that the crisis to end at some not-too-distant time.[7] Rosa-Rodriguez noted that the fatwa stated a hope that the "Noble Turks" would soon intervene and end the religious persecution in Spain, a reference to the Ottoman Empire's growing power in the Mediterranean at the time.[40] This hope did not materialise, and the religious persecution in Spain continued, causing the fatwa's recommendations to become the normal way of practicing Islam for generations.[7]
Harvey also noted that the fatwa covered a wide range of Islamic religious duties, while usually a responsum fatwa only addresses a specific enquiry on a difficult point of detail.[1] The fatwa also went into specific practical challenges faced by Muslims in Spain, such as the pressure to curse Muhammad, eat pork, drink wine, and intermarry with the Christians. This suggests that the author had some knowledge of what life under Christian rule was like.[41]
In popular culture
Amin Maalouf's 1986 novel Leo Africanus features a fictionalised version of the fatwa. In the novel, Muslim exiles from Granada and the local ulama (Islamic scholars) held meetings in Fez to provide counsel to the Muslims in Granada, who sent letters describing their persecution and their dilemma. Amid the meetings, the protagonist of the novel witnessed the "man from Oran" delivering a speech similar in content to the Oran fatwa.[42]
Surviving manuscripts
As of 2006, there are four known surviving manuscripts containing the fatwa. One of them is an Arabic copy, discovered by Muhammad Abdullah 'Inan in the Vatican in 1951 and kept in the Borgiano collection of the Vatican Library.[4] The other three were translations to Spanish written in the Arabic script (aljamiado). One of them was kept in Aix-en-Provence, France, and one in Madrid, Spain.[43] The third aljamiado translation used to be in Madrid, but its location is currently unknown.[44][45]
Since the discovery, the texts have been transcribed or translated into modern Spanish, English and German.[4] Historian L. P. Harvey provides a near-complete English translation in his book Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1615.[46][44]
References
Footnotes
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Harvey 2005, p. 60.
- ^ a b Stewart 2007, p. 296.
- ^ a b Stewart 2007, p. 273.
- ^ a b c d e f g Stewart 2007, p. 266.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, pp. 61–62.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Harvey 2005, p. 64.
- ^ a b c d Rosa-Rodríguez 2010, p. 152.
- ^ a b c Carr 2009, p. 40.
- ^ Harvey 1992, p. 9.
- ^ Carr 2009, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Coleman 2003, p. 6.
- ^ Carr 2009, p. 59.
- ^ Lea 1901, p. 35.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, p. 48.
- ^ Harvey 2005, pp. 48–49.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 49.
- ^ Carr 2009, p. 74.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, p. 57.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 6.
- ^ Harvey 2005, pp. 49–52.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, pp. 63–64.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, p. 56.
- ^ Stewart 2007, p. 298.
- ^ a b Hendrickson 2009, p. 25.
- ^ Stewart 2007, pp. 270–271.
- ^ Dumper & Stanley 2008.
- ^ a b Garcia-Arenal & Rodríguez Mediano 2013, p. 290.
- ^ a b Stewart 2007, p. 270.
- ^ a b Stewart 2007, p. 269.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Harvey 2005, p. 61.
- ^ a b c Harvey 2005, p. 62.
- ^ Rosa-Rodríguez 2010, p. 177.
- ^ a b Rosa-Rodríguez 2010, p. 153.
- ^ Rosa-Rodríguez 2010, pp. 153–154.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 185.
- ^ Rosa-Rodríguez 2010, p. 157.
- ^ Stewart 2007, pp. 266, 298–299.
- ^ a b Stewart 2007, p. 299.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, p. 63.
- ^ Rosa-Rodríguez 2010, p. 151–152.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 65.
- ^ Maalouf 1998, pp. 115–116.
- ^ Stewart 2007, pp. 266–267.
- ^ a b Stewart 2007, p. 267.
- ^ Stewart 2007, p. 300.
- ^ Harvey 2005, pp. 61–63.
Bibliography
- Carr, Matthew (2009). Blood and Faith: The Purging of Muslim Spain. ISBN 978-1-59558-361-1.
- Coleman, David (2003). Creating Christian Granada: Society and Religious Culture in an Old-World Frontier City, 1492–1600. ISBN 0-8014-4111-0.
- Dumper, Michael R.T.; Stanley, Bruce E., eds. (2008), "Oran", Cities of the Middle East and North Africa, ISBN 978-1-57607-920-1
- Garcia-Arenal, Mercedes; Rodríguez Mediano, Fernando (2013). The Orient in Spain: Converted Muslims, the Forged Lead Books of Granada, and the Rise of Orientalism. ISBN 978-90-04-25029-1.
- Harvey, L. P. (1992). Islamic Spain, 1250 to 1500. ISBN 978-0-226-31962-9.
- Harvey, L. P. (16 May 2005). Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31963-6.
- Hendrickson, Jocelyn N (2009). The Islamic Obligation to Emigrate: Al-Wansharīsī's Asnā al-matājir Reconsidered (Ph.D.). Emory University. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
- Lea, Henry Charles (1901). The Moriscos of Spain: Their Conversion and Expulsion. Philadelphia: Lea Brothers & Company.
- ISBN 978-1-4616-6331-7.
- Rosa-Rodríguez, María (2010). "Simulation and Dissimulation: Religious Hybridity in a Morisco Fatwa". Medieval Encounters. 16 (2). Leiden, The Netherlands: ISSN 1380-7854.
- ISSN 1988-2955.
External links
- A near-complete English translation of the fatwa in Harvey 2005, pp. 61–63