Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain
The forced conversions of Muslims in Spain were enacted through a series of edicts outlawing Islam in the lands of the Spanish Monarchy. This persecution was pursued by three Spanish kingdoms during the early 16th century: the Crown of Castile in 1500–1502, followed by Navarre in 1515–1516, and lastly the Crown of Aragon in 1523–1526.[1]
After Christian kingdoms finished their
While adhering to Christianity in public was required by the royal edicts and enforced by the Spanish Inquisition, evidence indicated that most of the forcibly converted (known as the "Moriscos") clung to Islam in secret. In daily public life, traditional Islamic law could no longer be followed without persecution by the Inquisition; as a result, the Oran fatwa was issued to acknowledge the necessity of relaxing sharia, as well as detailing the ways in which Muslims were to do so. This fatwa become the basis for the crypto-Islam practiced by the Moriscos until their expulsions in 1609–1614. Some Muslims, many near the coast, emigrated in response to the conversion. However, restrictions placed by the authorities on emigration meant leaving Spain was not an option for many. Rebellions also broke out in some areas, especially those with defensible mountainous terrain, but they were all unsuccessful. Ultimately, the edicts created a society in which devout Muslims who secretly refused conversion coexisted with former Muslims who became genuine practicing Christians, up until the expulsion.
Background
Islam has been present in the Iberian Peninsula since the
In the initial years after the conquest of Granada, Muslims in Granada and elsewhere continued to enjoy freedom of religion.
Three months after the conquest of Granada, in 1492, the Alhambra Decree ordered all Jews in Spain to be expelled or converted; this marked the beginning of a set of new policies.[8] In 1497, Spain's western neighbor Portugal expelled its Jewish and Muslim populations, as arranged by Spain's cardinal Cisneros in exchange for a royal marriage contract.[9] Unlike the Jews, Portuguese Muslims were allowed to relocate overland to Spain, and most did.[10]
Conversion process
In the mid late of the fifteenth century, Spain was split between two realms: Crown of Castile and the smaller Crown of Aragon. The marriage between King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile united the two crowns, and ultimately their grandson Charles would inherit both crowns (as Charles I of Spain, but better known as Charles V, per his regnal number as Holy Roman Emperor). Despite the union, the lands of the two crowns functioned very differently, with disparate laws, ruling priorities, and treatment of Muslims.[11] There were also Muslims living in the Kingdom of Navarre, which was initially independent but was annexed by Castile in 1515.[12] Forced conversion varied in timeline by ruling body: it was enacted by the Crown of Castile in 1500–1502, in Navarre in 1515–1516, and by the Crown of Aragon in 1523–1526.[1]
In the Crown of Castile
Kingdom of Granada
Initial efforts at forcing the conversions of Spanish Muslims were started by Cardinal Cisneros, the archbishop of Toledo, who arrived in Granada in the autumn of 1499.
The forced conversions led to a series of rebellions, initially started in the city of Granada. This uprising was precipitated by the riotous murder of a constable who had been transporting a Muslim woman for interrogation through the Muslim quarter of Granada; it ended with negotiations, after which the Muslims laid down their weapons and handed over those responsible for the murder of the constable.[17] Subsequently, Cisneros convinced King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella that, by attempting a rebellion, the Muslims lost their rights in the treaty, and must now accept conversions.[17][18] The monarchs sent Cisneros back to Granada to preside over a renewed conversion campaign.[17][18] Muslims in the city were forcibly converted in large numbers – 60,000 according to the Pope, in a letter to Cisneros in March 1500.[18] Cisneros declared in January 1500 that "there is no one in the city who is not a Christian."[17]
Although the city of Granada was now under Christian control, the uprising spread to the countryside. The leader of the rebellion fled to the
Rest of Castile
Unlike the Muslims of Granada, who were under Muslim rule until 1492, Muslims in the rest of Castile had lived under Christian rule for generations.
On paper, the edict ordered expulsion rather than a forced conversion, but it forbade nearly all possible destinations; in reality, the Castilian authorities preferred Muslims to convert than emigrate.
Historian L.P. Harvey wrote that with this edict, "in such a summary fashion, at such short notice", Muslim presence under the
Navarre's queen Catherine de Foix (r. 1483–1517) and her co-ruling husband John III had no interest in pursuing expulsion or forced conversions.[12] When the Spanish Inquisition arrived in Navarre in the late fifteenth century and began harassing local Muslims, the Navarran royal court warned it to cease.[12]
However, in 1512, Navarre was invaded by Castile and Aragon.[12] The Spanish forces led by King Ferdinand quickly occupied the Iberian half of the kingdom, including the capital Pamplona; in 1513, he was proclaimed King.[12] In 1515, Navarre was formally annexed by the Crown of Castile as one of its kingdoms.[12] With this conquest, the 1501–02 edict of conversion came into effect in Navarre, and the Inquisition was tasked with enforcing it.[12] Unlike in Castile, however, few Muslims appeared to accept the conversion.[12] Historian Brian A. Catlos argues that the lack of baptismal records and a high volume of land sales by Muslims in 1516 indicate that most of them simply left Navarre to escape through the lands of the Crown of Aragon to North Africa (the Crown of Aragon was by this time inhospitable to Muslims).[12] Some also stayed despite the order; for example, in 1520, there were 200 Muslims in Tudela who were wealthy enough to be listed in the registers.[12]
In the Crown of Aragon
Despite presiding over the conversions of Muslims in his wife's Castilian lands, Ferdinand II did not extend the conversions to his Aragonese subject.
The first wave of forced conversions in the Crown of Aragon happened during the Revolt of the Brotherhoods. Rebellion bearing an anti-Muslim sentiment broke out among the Christian subjects of Valencia in the early 1520s,[31] and those active in it forced Muslims to become Christians in the territories they controlled.[32] Muslims joined the Crown in suppressing the rebellion, playing crucial roles in several battles.[32] After the rebellion was suppressed, the Muslims regarded the conversions forced by the rebels as invalid and returned to their faith.[33] Subsequently, King Charles I (also known as Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire) started an investigation to determine the validity of the conversions.[34] The commission tasked with this investigation started working in November 1524.[35] Charles ultimately upheld the conversions, putting the forcibly converted subjects under the authority of the Inquisition.[34] Supporters of this decision argued that the Muslims had a choice when confronted by the rebels: they could have chosen to refuse and die, but did not, indicating that the conversions happened out of free will and must remain in effect.[32]
At the same time, Charles tried to release himself from the oath he swore to protect the Muslims.[36] He wrote to Pope Clement VII in 1523 and again in 1524 for this dispensation.[36] Clement initially resisted the request, but issued in May 1524 a papal brief releasing Charles from the oath and absolving him from all perjuries that might arise from breaking it.[37] The Pope also authorized the Inquisition to suppress oppositions to the upcoming conversions.[37]
On 25 November 1525, Charles issued an edict ordering the expulsion or conversion of remaining Muslims in the Crown of Aragon.[32][38] Similar to the case in Castile, even though the option of exile was available on paper, in practice it was almost impossible.[34][39][40] In order to leave the realm, a Muslim would have had to obtain documentation from Siete Aguas on Aragon's western border, then travel inland across the entire breadth of Castile to embark by sea from A Coruña in the northwest coast.[34] The edict set a deadline of 31 December in the Kingdom of Valencia, and 26 January 1526, in Aragon and Catalonia.[34] Those who failed to arrive on time would be subject to enslavement.[34] A subsequent edict said that those who did not leave by 8 December would need to show proof of baptism.[34][41] Muslims were also ordered to "listen without replying" to Christian teachings.[41]
A very small number of Muslims managed to escape to France and from there to the Muslim North Africa.[41] Some revolted against this order – for example, a revolt broke out in the Serra d'Espadà.[42] The crown's troops defeated this rebellion in a campaign which included the killing of 5,000 Muslims.[42] After the defeat of the rebellions, the entire Crown of Aragon was now nominally converted to Christianity.[43][38] Mosques were demolished, first names and family names were changed, and the religious practice of Islam was driven underground.[44]
Muslim reaction
Crypto-Islam
For those who could not emigrate, conversion was the only option to survive.
Oran fatwa
The Oran fatwa was a
Emigration
The predominant position of Islamic scholars had been that a Muslim could not stay in a country where rulers made proper religious observance impossible:[58] therefore, a Muslim's obligation was to leave when they were able to.[57] Even before the systematic forced conversion, religious leaders had argued that Muslims in Christian territory would be subject to direct and indirect pressure, and preached emigration as a way to protect the religion from eroding.[23] Ahmad al-Wansharis, the contemporary North African scholar and leading authority on Spanish Muslims,[59] wrote in 1491 that emigrating from Christian to Muslim lands was compulsory in almost all circumstances.[23] Further, he urged severe punishment for Muslims who remained and predicted that they would temporarily dwell in hell in the afterlife.[60]
However, the policy of the Christian authorities was generally to block such emigration.
While the edict of conversion in Castile nominally allowed emigration, it explicitly forbade nearly all available destinations for the Muslim population of Castile, and consequently "virtually all" Muslims had to accept conversion.
Armed resistance
The conversion campaign of Cardinal Cisneros in Granada triggered the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1499–1501).[65][66] The revolt ended in royalist victories, and the defeated rebels were then required to convert.[19][21]
After the edict of conversion in Aragon, Muslims also took up arms, especially in the areas with defensible mountainous terrain.
Sincere conversions
Some converts were sincerely devout in their Christian faith. Cisneros said that some converts chose to die as martyrs when demanded to recant by the Muslim rebels in Granada.[74] A convert named Pedro de Mercado from the village of Ronda refused to join the rebellion in Granada; in response, the rebels burned his house and kidnapped members of his family, including his wife and a daughter.[74] The crown later paid him compensation for his losses.[74]
In 1502, the whole Muslim community of Teruel (part of Aragon bordered with Castile) converted en masse to Christianity, even though the 1502 edict of conversion for Castilian Muslims did not apply to them.[75] Harvey suggested that they were pressured by the Castilians across the border, but historian Trevor Dadson argued that this conversion was unforced, caused instead by centuries of contact with their Christian neighbors and a desire for an equal status with the Christians.[76]
References
Citations
- ^ a b c d Harvey 2005, p. 14.
- ^ a b c Carr 2009, p. 40.
- ^ Harvey 1992, p. 9.
- ^ Carr 2009, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Carr 2009, p. 52.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, pp. 85–86.
- ^ Carr 2009, p. 81.
- ^ Harvey 1992, p. 325.
- ^ Harvey 2005, pp. 15–16.
- ^ Harvey 2005, pp. 20.
- ^ Harvey 2005, pp. 257.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Catlos 2014, p. 220.
- ^ Carr 2009, p. 57.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, p. 27.
- ^ a b c Carr 2009, p. 58.
- ^ Coleman 2003, p. 6.
- ^ a b c d Carr 2009, p. 60.
- ^ a b c Harvey 2005, p. 31.
- ^ a b c d Carr 2009, p. 63.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 36.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, p. 45.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Harvey 2005, p. 57.
- ^ a b c Harvey 2005, p. 56.
- ^ Edwards 2014, p. 99.
- ^ a b c Edwards 2014, p. 100.
- ^ Harvey 2005, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 15.
- ^ a b c d e f Harvey 2005, p. 58.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 29.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, p. 86.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 92.
- ^ a b c d Harvey 2005, p. 93.
- ^ Lea 1901, p. 71.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Harvey 2005, p. 94.
- ^ Lea 1901, p. 75.
- ^ a b Lea 1901, p. 83.
- ^ a b Lea 1901, p. 84.
- ^ a b Catlos 2014, p. 226.
- ^ a b c Catlos 2014, p. 227.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, p. 99.
- ^ a b c d Lea 1901, p. 87.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 101.
- ^ Catlos 2014, pp. 226–227.
- ^ a b c d Harvey 2005, p. 49.
- ^ a b Harvey 2006.
- ^ Harvey 2005, pp. 102, 256.
- ^ a b Rosa-Rodríguez 2010, p. 153.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 52.
- ^ Rosa-Rodríguez 2010, pp. 153–154.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 185.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, p. 181.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 182.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, p. 60.
- ^ a b Stewart 2007, p. 266.
- ^ Harvey 2005, pp. 61–62.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, p. 64.
- ^ Harvey 2005, pp. 63–64.
- ^ Stewart 2007, p. 298.
- ^ Hendrickson 2009, p. 25.
- ^ a b Harvey 2005, p. 48.
- ^ Carr 2009, p. 65.
- ^ Lea 1901, p. 40.
- ^ Harvey 2005, pp. 48–49.
- ^ Lea 1901, p. 33.
- ^ Carr 2009, p. 59.
- ^ a b c d Harvey 2005, p. 100.
- ^ Lea 1901, p. 91.
- ^ Lea 1901, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Lea 1901, pp. 92.
- ^ Lea 1901, pp. 93–94.
- ^ a b Lea 1901, p. 94.
- ^ Lea 1901, p. 95.
- ^ a b c Carr 2009, p. 64.
- ^ Harvey 2005, p. 82.
- ^ Dadson 2006.
Bibliography
- Carr, Matthew (2009). Blood and Faith: The Purging of Muslim Spain. ISBN 978-1-59558-361-1.
- Catlos, Brian A. (March 20, 2014). Muslims of Medieval Latin Christendom, c.1050–1614. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88939-1.
- Coleman, David (2003). Creating Christian Granada: Society and Religious Culture in an Old-World Frontier City, 1492–1600. ISBN 0-8014-4111-0.
- Dadson, Trevor (February 10, 2006). "Moors of La Mancha". The Times Literary Supplement.
- Edwards, John (June 11, 2014). Ferdinand and Isabella. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-89345-5.
- ISBN 978-0-226-31962-9.
- Harvey, L. P. (May 16, 2005). Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31963-6.
- Harvey, L. P. (February 24, 2006). "Fatwas in early modern Spain". The Times Literary Supplement.
- Hendrickson, Jocelyn N (2009). Devin J. Stewart (ed.). The Islamic Obligation to Emigrate: Al-Wansharīsī's Asnā al-matājir Reconsidered (PhD). Emory University. Archived from the original on June 18, 2010. Retrieved February 1, 2016.
- Lea, Henry Charles (1901). The Moriscos of Spain: Their Conversion and Expulsion. Philadelphia: Lea Brothers & Company.
- Rosa-Rodríguez, María (2010). "Simulation and Dissimulation: Religious Hybridity in a Morisco Fatwa". Medieval Encounters. 16 (2). Leiden, The Netherlands: ISSN 1380-7854.
- ISSN 1988-2955.