Remix culture

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like radio broad-casting) enabled the RO culture's business model of production and distribution and limited the role of the consumer to consumption of media.

Digital technology does not have the 'natural' constraints of the analog that preceded it. RO culture had to be recoded in order to compete with the "free" distribution made possible by the Internet. This is primarily done in the form of

Digital Rights Management (DRM), which imposes largely arbitrary restrictions on usage. Regardless, DRM has proven largely ineffective in enforcing the constraints of analog media onto digital media.^[9][10]

Read/Write culture has a reciprocal relationship between the producer and the consumer. Taking works, such as songs, and appropriating them in private circles is exemplary of RW culture, which was considered to be the 'popular' culture before the advent of reproduction technologies.[5] The technologies and copyright laws that soon followed, however, changed the dynamics of popular culture. As it became professionalized, people were taught to defer production to the professionals.

Digital technologies provide the tools for reviving RW culture and democratizing production, sometimes referred to as Web 2.0. Blogs explain the three layers of this democratization. Blogs have redefined our relationship to the content industry as they allowed access to non-professional, user-generated content. The 'comments' feature that soon followed provided a space for readers to have a dialogue with the amateur contributors. 'Tagging' of the blogs by users based on the content provided the necessary layer for users to filter the sea of content according to their interest. The third layer added bots that analyzed the relationship between various websites by counting the clicks between them and, thus, organizing a database of preferences. The three layers working together established an ecosystem of reputation that served to guide users through the blogosphere. While there is no doubt many amateur online publications cannot compete with the validity of professional sources, the democratization of digital RW culture and the ecosystem of reputation provides a space for many talented voices to be heard that was not available in the pre-digital RO model.

History

Remixing was always a part of the human culture.

Medieval Europe consisting mainly of verses or extracts directly borrowed from the works of other authors and arranged in a new form or order.^[4]

The balance between creation and consumption shifted with the technological progress on media recording and reproduction. Notable events are the invention of book printing press and the analog Sound recording and reproduction leading to severe cultural and legal changes.

Analog era

In the beginning of the 20th century, on the dawn of the analog Sound recording and reproduction revolution, John Philip Sousa, an American composer and conductor of the late Romantic era, warned in 1906 in a congressional hearing on a negative change of the musical culture by the now available "canned music".^[11][12]

"These

vocal cord

left. The vocal cord will be eliminated by a process of evolution, as was the tail of man when he came from the ape."

Specialized, expensive creation devices ("read-write") and specialized cheap consumption ("read-only") devices allowed a centralized production by few and decentralized consumption by many. Analog devices for consumers for low prices, lacking the capability of writing and creating, spread out fast:

Newspapers, Jukebox, radio, television. This new business model, an Industrial information economy, demanded and resulted in the strengthening of the exclusive copyright and a weakening of the remix culture and the Public domain

in throughout the 19th and 20th century.

Analog creation devices were expensive and also limited in their editing and rearranging capability. An analog copy of a work (e.g. an

audio tape) cannot be edited, copied and worked on infinitely often as the quality continuously worsens. Despite that, a creative remixing culture survived to some limited degree. For instance composer John Oswald coined in 1985 the Plunderphonics term in his essay Plunderphonics, or Audio Piracy as a Compositional Prerogative for sound collages based on existing audio recordings and altering them in some way to make a new composition

.

Remixing as digital age phenomena

Technology changed fundamentally with the

IBM personal computer brought a digital prosumer device, a device usable for production and consumption at the same time, to the masses for an affordable price.^[14][15] Similarly for software, in the 1990s the free and open-source software

movement implemented a software ecosystem based on the idea of edit-ability by anyone.

Internet and Web 2.0

The broad diffusion of the Internet and of the Web in the late 1990s and early 2000s created a highly effective way to re-implement a "remix culture" in all domains of art, technology and society. Unlike TV and radio, with a unidirectional information transport (producer to consumer), the Internet is inherently bidirectional, enabling a peer-to-peer dynamic. This accelerated with Web 2.0 and more user-generated content due to Commons-based peer production possibilities. Remixes of songs, videos, and photos are easily distributed and created. There is a constant revision to what is being created, which is done on both a professional and amateur scale. The availability of various end-user oriented software such as GarageBand and Adobe Photoshop makes it easy to remix. The Internet allows distribution of remixes to the masses. Internet memes are Internet-specific creative content which are created, filtered and transformed by the viral spreading process made possible by the web and its users.

Foundation of the Creative Commons

As a response to a more restrictive copyright system (

DeviantART^[16] and Europeana using or offering CC license options which allow remixing. There are several webpages addressing this remix culture, for instance ccMixter

founded 2004.

The 2008 open-source film by Brett Gaylor RiP!: A Remix Manifesto documents "the changing concept of copyright".^[17][18]

In 2012,

DMCA take down notices.^[20]

Copyright

Main article:

Copyright reform movement

Under

copyright terms, as it was debated by scholar Rufus Pollock.^[24][25]

Other copyright scholars, such as Yochai Benkler and Erez Reuveni,^[26] promulgate ideas that are closely related to remix culture. Some scholars argue that the academic and legal institutions must change with the culture towards one that is remix-based.^[27]

In June 2015, a

copyright reform.^[20]

Domains of remixing

Folklore and vocal traditions

animal fables. The original work is believed to be composed around the 3rd century BCE,^[28][29] Translator's introduction, quoting Hertel: "the original work was composed in Kashmir, about 200 B.C. At this date, however, many of the individual stories were already ancient." based on older oral traditions, including "animal fables that are as old as we are able to imagine".^[30]

recipe and label artwork, created since the first release in 2005 under a Creative Commons license

.

• animal fables in verse and prose, arranged within a frame story. The original Sanskrit work is believed to be composed around the 3rd century BCE,^[28] based on older oral traditions, including "animal fables that are as old as we are able to imagine".^[30] The Panchatantra was reinterpreted in the following 2300 years at least 200 times in 50 different languages all around the world.^[32][33][34]
• creative commons license
  , actively encouraging free adaption and reuse.
• Parodies are a form of satire that adapt another work of art in order to ridicule it. Parodies date back at least to ancient Greek times. Parody exists in all art media, including literature, music and cinema.

Graphic arts

• Remixing in the graphical arts is long known as
  Photoshopped images of the Mona Lisa mixed with Mr. Bean
  and an alien-like version.

Graffiti in Tehran by a1one

• Graffiti is an example of read/write culture where the participants interact with their surroundings and environment. In much the same way that advertisements decorate walls, graffiti allows the public to choose the images to have displayed on their buildings. By using spray paint, or other mediums, the artists essentially remix and change the wall or other surface to display their twist or critique. Street art is a sub-genre of graffiti, distinguished by emphasizing artistic elements other than text, and utilizing a variety of mediums, including paint, stenciling, collage, and the incorporation of physical surfaces and objects, while often providing critical social commentary.^[35] Street artist Shepard Fairey built their personal brand on a remixed image of professional wrestler Andre the Giant, done in a Pop Art style, with the term OBEY printed beneath the portrait. Fairey applied a similar technique when designing the popular HOPE campaign poster in support of then 2008 U.S. Presidential Candidate Barack Obama. Fairey's HOPE image was also similar in composition to the iconic posterized image of Che Guevara, adapted from the photograph Guerrillero Heroico.^[35] That same image of Guevara has also been remixed by notable contemporary English graffiti artist Banksy, who adapted the pastiche in their work Haight Street Rat which depicts a rat wearing Guevara's red beret, and holding a red marker next to the words "This is where I draw the line."^[36]

Books and other information

• Amazon.com called Wikipedia "the world's most exhaustive and up-to-date encyclopedia" because it is edited and produced by such a large pool of people.^[37]
• fan-made translations of comics
  from a language into another language.
• Book mashups, combining multiple books, received attention in 2009 with Seth Grahame-Smith's Pride and Prejudice and Zombies
  .
• The
  GPS devices, aerial photography, and other free sources.^[39]
• The
  Deviantart
  who offer Creative Commons license options.

Software and other digital goods

digital good

is well suited for adaption and remixing.

• Pre-internet
  Public domain software of the 1960s and 1970s was software which was shared, edited and improved constantly as type-in programs. The Free and open-source software
  movement can be seen as a kind of successor to that practice.
• In the
  Android and ChromeOS
  , is a highly successful result of a software "remix culture".
• The arrival of Internet facing software repositories helped the remix software development model enormously in the 2000s. GitHub has helped further the collaborative software development in remix style since 2008.
• Dōjin soft is the Japanese-specific variant, and homebrew
  typically for proprietary hardware consoles.
• non-commercial
  re-arranging and re-interpreting the songs.
• bugs or shortcomings.^[42]
• fan-made
  videos "remixed" from and with video games, going far beyond the original scope and intent.
• Retrocomputing and computer and digital preservation activities as emulation and reverse engineering have been described as aspects of the remixing culture.^[43]
• Household 3D printing heavily relies on remixing as this allows users to repurpose existing designs. Several academic studies have highlighted the importance of remixing for the 3D printing community.^{[44][45][46][47]} Thingiverse is a 3D printing community that allows its users to create, share, and access a broad range of printable digital models. The possibility to remix existing models is the core of this platform. In 2016 Microsoft started Remix3D.com, a community that is also dedicated to 3D printing models.

Music

• DJing
  is the act of live rearranging and remixing of pre-recorded music material to new compositions. From this music, the term remix spread to other domains.
• hip-hop culture. Grandmaster Flash and Afrika Bambaataa were some of the earliest hip-hop artists to employ the practice of sampling. This practice can also be traced to artists such as Led Zeppelin, who interpolated substantial portions of music by many acts including Willie Dixon, Howlin' Wolf, Jake Holmes, and Spirit
  . By taking a small clip of an existing song, changing different parameters such as pitch, and incorporating it into a new piece, the artist can make it their own.
• Dean Gray, and DJ Earworm
  .
• Some genres of music are defined by their usage of remixing. DJ Screw created the Chopped and Screwed genre by accidentally playing a record that was meant for 45 rpm at 33 1⁄3 rpm, creating a slowed, laid-back, psychedelic effect. Over the slowed down track Screw would layer drum tracks and then scratch the records to create a classic Southern hip-hop sound.^[49] Nightcore is a genre that speeds up mainstream rock, pop, and EDM songs, often with additional production. The sped -up nature leads to the original song playing at a higher pitch, so the production added usually fills out the low-end with heavy bass and then adds other high pitched elements to enhance the energy of the song.^[50] Building upon Plunderphonics and Chopped and Screwed, Vaporwave as a musical genre involves slowing down smooth jazz, RnB, and Elevator music and usually adding reverb and backing synths, creating a trippy new-age ambience.^[51]

Film and video

In film, remixing is often done and happens in many forms.

• Most new movies are adaptations of
  The Seven Samurai, and Sergio Leone's A Fistful of Dollars).^[53]
• YouTube Poop, and supercuts.^[54][55]
• media fandom of creating music videos from the footage of one or more visual media sources, thereby exploring the source itself in a new way. The specialized form for animation shows is called Anime music videos
  , also made by fans.
• DJing, is the real-time manipulation of imagery through technological mediation and for an audience, in synchronization to music.^[56]
• Fandubs and Fansubs are reworks of fans on released film material.
• Walt Disney works are important company remixing examples, for instance Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, Frozen. These remixes are based on earlier public domain works (although Disney films are altered from their original sources).^[57][58] Lawrence Lessig therefore called Walt Disney a "remixer extraordinaire" and praised him as ideal of the remix culture in 2010.^[59] Some journalists however report that Disney tolerates fan remixes (Fan art) more than in earlier times.^[60]

GIFs

GIFs are another example of remix culture. They are illustrations and small clips from films used for personal expressions in online conversations.^[61] GIFs are commonly taken from an online video form such as film, TV, or YouTube videos.^[62] Each clip usually lasts for about 3 seconds^[62] and is "looped, extended and repeated."^[63] GIFs take a mass media sample and reimagines, or remixes, its meaning from the original context to use it as a form of personal expression in a different context.^[64] They are used throughout various media platforms but are most popular in Tumblr where they are used to articulate a punch line.^[62]

Fan fiction

Fanfiction is an example of remix culture in action, in relation to various forms of fictional and non-fictional media, including books, TV shows, movies, musicians, actors, and more. Fan fiction is a written, remixed fiction which draws on the characters of the writer's fandom, in order to tell the fan fiction writer's own story, or their version of the original story.^[65] Remix Culture relies on creators taking one work and repurposing it for another use^[66] just as fanfiction takes an existing work and repurposes it for a new story, or series of events. Steven Hetcher writes that fanfiction, and remix culture at a broader level, can provide social benefit to the societies who participate in writing and reading fanfiction by providing a creative outlet.^[67] Fanfiction remixes sometimes change aspects of the characters or setting, often called an alternative universe, with some writers putting pre-existing characters in a new setting, and others taking an established setting and placing in new characters. In the social norms of fan fiction, it is rare for writers to publish or profit off of their works, and so copyright owners and authors rarely enforce copyright law, as these works help form communities and promote the original work.^[68]

TikTok

The app TikTok has become a relevant media platform that utilizes remix culture as a marketing and engagement technique, using it to market products to viewers while also entertaining them.^[69] Content creators and brands can now collaborate in an environment where remixing content is accepted and encouraged to gain followers through creative videos following trending actions, audios, and memes.^[70] Older songs and celebrities are making comebacks by being attached to remix trends, their music or content is now being viewed again by being attached to a trend. Garnering attention for the artist and these bits is a marketing technique that makes viewers want to investigate the artist more.^[71] Musicians like Doja Cat and Lil Nas X are two current musicians that have culminated their music in the TikTok remix culture. For example, "Remember (Walking In The Sand)" the 1960s song by the Shangri-Las has recently been remixed to an EDM track that brought more attention to the song and a following into it due to a popular TikTok trend circulating largely in 2020.^[72] These trending songs allow for music on TikTok to become spreadable and testable. Companies and artists can test out music bits and loops to see how successful they may become before fully releasing them.

Remixing in religion

Throughout history remix culture has been truthful not only in exchange of oral stories but also through the Bible.^[73] Eugene H. Peterson reinterpreted bible stories in his 2002 book "The Message// Remix" which makes the Bible easier for readers to interpret.^[74] An idea of remixing dated back to the Quakers who would interpret the scripture and create a biblical narrative by using their own voices, which went against the "read-only" practice that was more common.^[75]

Intertwining of media cultures

For remix culture to survive, it must be shared and created by others. This is where participatory culture comes into play, because consumers start participating by becoming contributors, especially the many teens growing up with these media cultures. A book was published in 2013 by Henry Jenkins called "Reading in a Participatory Culture" which focuses on his technique of remixing the original story Moby-Dick to make it a new and fresh experience for students. This form of teaching enforces the correlation between participatory and remix culture while highlighting its importance in evolving literature. Remix culture can be an integral part of education. Arguably, scholars are constantly remixing when they are analyzing and reporting on the work of others. One study examined the use of remixing among students when presenting learned information. For example, students will pull images, text, and other information from various original sources and place those elements in a presentable format, such as a slide presentation, in order to demonstrate understanding of material reviewed. Media culture consumers start to look at art and content as something that can be repurposed or recreated, therefore they can become the producer. According to an article from Popular Music and Society, the idea of remix culture has become a defining characteristic of modern day technology which has incorporated all forms of digital media where the consumers are also the producers.

Effects on artists

Artists participating in remix culture can potentially suffer consequences for violating copyright or intellectual property law. English rock band The Verve were sued over their song "Bittersweet Symphony" sampling an arrangement of The Rolling Stones' "The Last Time."^[76] The Verve were court-ordered to pay 100% of the song's royalties to The Rolling Stones' publishers and to give writing credit to Jagger and Richards.^[76] This was resolved in 2019 as Richard Ashcroft of The Verve announced that Jagger and Richards signed over the publishing rights to the song, admitting it was their manager's decision to claim the songs' royalties.^[77]

Remix culture has created an environment that is nearly impossible for artists to create or own "

Meanwhile, despite the legal complexities of copyright protections, remixed works continue to be popular in the mainstream. Rapper Lil Nas X's "Old Town Road," released in 2018, includes a sample by the industrial metal band Nine Inch Nails, while also blending the genres of hip-hop and country music. "Old Town Road" was a smash hit, setting a record of 19 weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 Chart.^[78] Four official remixes of "Old Town Road" were released, the first of which featured country singer Billy Ray Cyrus. This formula for genre-hybridization inspired countless unofficial remixes of the track, appropriated for various uses.^[78]

Copyright and remixing for disability services

An exemption exists for disability service technology to change copyrighted media to make it accessible to them.^[79] The American Foundation of the Blind (AFB), American Council of the Blind (ACB) and Samuelson-Glushko Technology Law & Policy Clinic (TLPC) work with U.S. Copyright Office, Library of Congress to renew the exemptions that allow the visually impaired to convert visual texts in copyrighted work into e-readers and other forms of technology that make it possible for them to access.^[80] So long as the copyrighted material is obtained in the legal way, the exemption allows for it to be remixed to help to be accessible to anyone disabled.^[79] This exemption extends broadly, including transcribing public broadcasts such as television or radio to be transcribed to braille or visual text if need be.^[81] With the proper license, obtained by anyone with a disability that can limit perception, copyrighted material that is obtained legally can be remixed for their understanding.^[81][82] It has last been renewed in 2012 and continues to stand.^[79]

Reception and impact

In February 2010,

According to

• Commons-based peer production
• Culture jamming
• Fandom
• Good Copy Bad Copy
• Prosumer
• Recombinant culture

References