Simonas Daukantas
Simonas Daukantas | |
---|---|
Born | |
Died | 6 December 1864 | (aged 71)
Nationality | Lithuanian |
Other names | Szymon Dowkont |
Alma mater | Vilnius University |
Occupation(s) | Historian, non-fiction writer |
Notable work | The Character of the Ancient Lithuanians, Highlanders, and Samogitians |
Movement | Lithuanian National Revival |
Simonas Daukantas (Polish: Szymon Dowkont; 28 October 1793 – 6 December 1864) was a Lithuanian/Samogitian historian, writer, and ethnographer. One of the pioneers of the Lithuanian National Revival, he is credited as the author of the first book on the history of Lithuania written in the Lithuanian language. Only a few of his works were published during his lifetime and he died in obscurity. However, his works were rediscovered during the later stages of the National Revival. His views reflected the three major trends of the 19th century: romanticism, nationalism, and liberalism.[1]
Daukantas was born in
While Daukantas knew seven languages, he published exclusively in Lithuanian. He was a prolific writer and worked on a wide range of books – studies on the history of Lithuania, publications of primary historical sources, collections of Lithuanian folklore, Polish–Lithuanian dictionaries, Latin textbook for schoolchildren, primer of the Lithuanian language, Catholic prayer book, agricultural manuals for peasants, translations of classical Roman texts, novel for youth inspired by
Biography
Origins and primary education
Daukantas was born on 28 October 1793 in
Daukantas' education was financed by his uncle, priest Simonas Lopacinskis (died in 1814).
In 1814, Daukantas with 10
University education
In fall 1816, Daukantas began studies at the Faculty of Literature and Liberal Arts at
On 12 July 1819, Daukantas was granted the Candidate of Law degree in
He continued his studies and took canon law, Roman civil law, criminal law, land law, political economy, history, logic and metaphysics. From fall 1820, Daukantas stopped attending lectures except for land law. He stopped taking classes in spring 1822.[32] In all classes he received "good" or "very good" evaluations except in logic and metaphysics taught by Anioł Dowgird where his knowledge was rated as "satisfactory".[33] In spring 1821, Daukantas submitted an application for a master's degree.[34] The oral exams took place in October–November 1821. He had to answer questions on a wide variety of subjects, from the law and history of Ancient Rome and impostors of Dmitry of Uglich to theory of taxes and specifics of Russian economy as well as thoughts of Montesquieu and Adam Smith.[35] In July 1822, Daukantas defended his thesis on the power of the head of a family according to the natural, Roman, and land law. He was granted the master's degree in canon and Roman law on 15 July 1822.[36]
However, Daukantas had to wait until 1825 to get his diploma. The degree needed a confirmation by the
There is no reliable information on Daukantas' activities while he waited for his diploma. Earlier biographers claimed that he studied at the
Civil servant
With his master's diploma in hand, Daukantas searched for a position in a government office. In September 1825, he was issued a passport that allowed him to travel to the Governorates of Livonia and Saint Petersburg.[49] He found a post at the office of the Governor-General of Livonia, Estonia and Courland in Riga.[42] All government officials in the Russian Empire were divided into 14 categories, from imperial ministers to train conductors (see: Table of Ranks). In 1826, Daukantas was recognized as a titular councillor, 9th category official. For a promotion to collegiate assessor he needed to prove his noble status and have three years of experience.[50] In February 1826, Tsar Nicholas I of Russia ordered to prepare a new law that would require all nobles to prove their social status. While the law was adopted only in May 1834, it became a lot more difficult to prove one's noble birth.[51] Daukantas and his brother Aleksandras, then a student at Vilnius University, had to resubmit all documents proving their genealogy to a special commission of Vilna Governorate.[52] The commission recognized both brothers as nobles and forwarded documents to Heroldia under the Governing Senate in January 1832. In May 1833, Heroldia recognized Daukantas as noble, but not his brother.[53] Daukantas was promoted to the 8th category in April 1834.[50]
During the
In February 1841, Daukantas' brother Aleksandras was implicated in an anti-Tsarist organization established by Szymon Konarski. After an interrogation, he attempted suicide and was brought to a hospital in Kherson. He died in the hospital on 5 October 1841.[61] More repressions and restrictions, including stricter censorship, followed after the Revolutions of 1848.[62] Afraid of attracting police attention and losing his job, Daukantas kept his historical research a secret and always asked friends and acquaintances not to publish or mention his name.[63] He used numerous non-repeating pen names and a few times published works without any name, though some researchers suggested that he also did that to create an impression that there were many Lithuanian writers.[64] Even when sending a copy of Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių to Teodor Narbutt, Daukantas described the work as if written by an unknown person.[63]
Collaboration with other historians
In Saint Petersburg, Daukantas worked on his studies on the history of Lithuania and was close friends with his former professor
Retirement
In an 1846 letter to Narbutt, Daukantas complained of poor health which he attributed to long hours spent in cold and damp archives of the Russian Senate. He complained that he had difficulty walking, but dismissed doctors' diagnosis of
In summer 1855, Daukantas moved from Varniai. Historians usually cite the conflict between Daukantas and Valančius as the reason for the move, but ill health and fear of police persecution probably also contributed.[88] Due to the Crimean War, Russian police became more vigilant and they came across Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių that Daukantas had published in 1845.[89] The censors reevaluated the book and deemed it inappropriate due to its anti-serfdom rhetoric. The police tracked down Daukantas and knew that he moved from Varniai to Courland. However, the book was already sold out and the investigation concluded with an order to keep an eye on bookstores in case a new edition of the book appeared.[90] The book was one of the first books added to a list of prohibited books compiled in October 1855.[91]
Daukantas moved to Jaunsvirlauka (German: Neu-Bergfried) in present-day Latvia to live with Petras Smuglevičius, a medical doctor and a relative of painter Franciszek Smuglewicz. Smuglevičius was accused of belonging to a secret student society, arrested for a year, later acquitted, but still lived under police supervision.[88] He was very supportive of Lithuanian cultural activities. In early 1858, Mikalojus Akelaitis also moved in to live with Smuglevičius. Akelaitis treated Daukantas as a fatherly figure and they supported each other's work.[92] Daukantas continued to work on his historical studies, writing to linguist Friedrich Kurschat in hopes of obtaining books by Ludwig Rhesa and Daniel Klein and copies of historical sources from Johannes Voigt.[93] He compiled a collection of historical documents, privileges from 1387–1561 that he had inherited from Jerzy Konstanty Plater , and made one last attempt to collect the document he loaned to Teodor Narbutt.[94] Daukantas supported the establishment of the Museum of Antiquities in Vilnius and corresponded with Eustachy Tyszkiewicz hoping to transfer some of his collected historical documents to the museum.[95] Akelaitis, Valančius, and Daukantas wanted to establish Pakeleivingas, a Lithuanian-language periodical aimed at the ordinary village people, but could not get government's permission.[96] Daukantas had four manuscripts ready to be published (two booklets with agricultural advice, Lithuanian reworking of Robinson Crusoe, and a second edition of a Lithuanian primer), but they all remained unpublished due to lack of funds.[97]
Around summer 1859, Daukantas left Jaunsvirlauka and briefly lived with various friends and relatives.
Works
Historical studies
Publication history
Daukantas wrote four original books on the history of Lithuania. Only one of them was published during his lifetime. In his research, Daukantas was hindered by inaccessibility of sources, lack of funds, absent institutional support (i.e. no government institution or university to assist him). It was a lonely, costly, and frustrating undertaking.[104] Book publishing was an expensive undertaking. For example, Daukantas had to pay 2,000 silver rubles to the publisher of his 120-page Latin grammar.[105] The only person known to have provided financial assistance to Daukantas is Ksaveras Kanapackis,[91] who is listed as sponsor of ten books by Daukantas.[105]
He wrote his first historical work, Darbai senųjų lietuvių ir žemaičių (Deeds of the Ancient Lithuanians and Samogitians), in 1822 while still a student at Vilnius University. The work starts with the 7th century BC and ends with the death of King
His second and largest historical work, Istorija žemaitiška (Samogitian History), was completed by 1834. The manuscript had 1,106 pages. It appears that Daukantas hoped to publish it around 1848 as he ordered a clean copy, which was discovered in 1983.[110] The work ended with the death of Sigismund II Augustus in 1572.[106] Istorija žemaitiška under the title Lietuvos istorija (History of Lithuania) was published in two volumes in 1893 and 1897 in the United States.[111] In 1850, Daukantas reworked it as Pasakojimas apie veikalus lietuvių tautos senovėje (Story of the Deeds of the Ancient Lithuanians) which ended with the death of Grand Duke Vytautas in 1430.[112] He hoped to publish it with the help of Motiejus Valančius and two copies with various corrections were produced. In 1882, Jonas Šliūpas made another copy with hopes of publishing it,[113] but the first 96 pages up to year 1201 were printed by Jonas Kriaučiūnas at the press of Martynas Jankus in 1893 and the work was first published in full only in 1976.[112] It was the only manuscript that Daukantas signed in his real name (though he also used pen name Jonas Einoras).[64]
His third historical book was Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių (The Character of the Ancient Lithuanians, Highlanders, and Samogitians). He created the word kalnėnai (highlanders) to refer to
Content
Daukantas was one of the first to clearly distinguish a nation from a state. He believed that a nation is defined by its language and customs, not statehood.[120] His histories were not about a territory that no longer existed (and that was mourned by Adam Mickiewicz), but about the living nation.[121] As long as Lithuanian language and customs (folklore, songs, tales, proverbs) existed, the Lithuanian nation would also survive.[43] Daukanatas proposed than developing culture and pursuing education, not just military or political means, were forms of resistance.[109] Therefore, he associated the Lithuanian national identity not with the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but with the Lithuanian language, folk culture, and customs – an idea that was further pursued by the Lithuanian National Revival and led to the formation of the independent Lithuania in 1918.[122] He further held liberal ideas that people were born with inalienable rights and that there was a social contract between a nation and the state.[1] He thought that peasants and other commoners were the core of a nation thus going against the Polish trend to emphasize the nation of nobles.[120][45]
His primary goal was to inspire love of the homeland and Lithuanian national pride among the common folk.
Daukantas idealized and idolized the past.
Sources cited
Overall, Daukantas' historical works were mostly influenced by the two-volume Historiae Lituanae by
In Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių, Daukantas cited a few documents from the Lithuanian Metrica, but perhaps was afraid to cite it more often as it could have attracted unwanted attention from the Tsarist authorities that he was using his access to the Metrica for non-work related purposes (the Metrica was carefully guarded to avoid any alterations or falsifications).[147] In this work, Daukantas expanded his bibliography by adding references to De moribus tartarorum, lituanorum et moscorum, Livonian Chronicle of Henry, works by Alexander Guagnini and Jan Łasicki, and others.[146] He also used Lithuanian folklore, etymologies, and semantics as a source.[138] While Daukantas cited a wide range of works and authors, including some classical historians such as Tacitus or Ptolemy, he avoided citing Polish historians who supported the union between Poland and Lithuania and considered Lithuania to be just a region of Poland. In particular, he disliked and barely cited Jan Długosz.[145] Overall, Daukantas was an erudite and well-read person, familiar with both classical and new western sources.[143] He knew seven languages: Lithuanian, Russian, Polish, Latin, German, Latvian, and French.[122]
Dictionaries
In addition to the brief Latin–Lithuanian dictionary published in 1838, Daukantas compiled three other dictionaries, but they were not published.[148] Lithuanians still used the Polish–Latin–Lithuanian dictionary by Konstantinas Sirvydas first published in 1620. Therefore, Daukantas was not the only Lithuanian to start a new Polish–Lithuanian dictionary. Mikalojus Akelaitis, Laurynas Ivinskis, Dionizas Poška, Simonas Stanevičius, Kiprijonas Nezabitauskis, and others are known to have started compiling a dictionary but their works were similarly not published.[149] Daukantas' entries did not provide lexicographic information (for example, gender of nouns) and had very few illustrative examples of how a certain word is used in a sentence. These lexicographic weaknesses reveal Daukantas' tendency to focus solely on words at the price of grammar, syntax, or style.[150] He wanted to demonstrate that Lithuanian language is rich in words and is an equal of other languages, but neglected practical aspects of the dictionaries.[151]
Sometime in 1838–1846,[152] Daukantas worked on a Polish–Lithuanian dictionary that possibly contained about 23,000 words. Only a fragment with 2,244 words has been preserved. The Polish list of words was borrowed from a dictionary published by Jan Litwiński in 1815.[153] Around 1842–1850, he worked on compiling a Lithuanian–Latin dictionary. The unfinished work contains 3,977 words and stops at the word Gwĩldós.[154] Around 1850–1855, Daukantas compiled a three-volume 2,280-page Polish–Lithuanian dictionary. It is unfinished and, according to the count by Jonas Kruopas, contains 56,567 Polish words but only 37,677 Lithuanian equivalents.[155] For the base list of Polish words, Daukantas used the Polish–French dictionary by Stanisław Ropelewski published in 1847.[156] The manuscript of the last dictionary was transferred by Daukantas' relatives to the Lithuanian Scientific Society in 1911.[157] There it was studied by Kazimieras Būga who picked out Lithuanian words, sometimes not known from anywhere else, for his planned Academic Dictionary of Lithuanian.[158] The three volumes of the Polish–Lithuanian dictionary were first published in 1993–1996.[159]
Books for students
From his own experience, Daukantas understood that Lithuanian students struggled learning Latin because they had to use Polish textbooks and many Lithuanians did not speak Polish before entering school.[160] Therefore, in 1837, he published a 120-page grammar book on Latin. It started with a basic introduction to the Lithuanian grammar on which then Latin grammar rules were built on. Thus, at the same time, it was one of the first textbooks of Lithuanian grammar.[161] In 1838, Daukantas published Epitome historiae sacrae by the French author Charles François Lhomond[161] and added a 42-page Latin–Lithuanian dictionary with about 2,350 Latin words and 250 word combinations[148] and 3,880 Lithuanian words and 260 word combinations.[162] The book was meant as a supplemental Latin reading for school students.[161] It was a popular work that was frequently published with a dictionary. Daukantas did not compile the Latin list of words, but translated it from a Polish edition.[163]
In 1841, Tsarist authorities, looking to weaken the Polish culture, allowed
Daukantas prepared five other books for school students, but only two were published during his lifetime. He published a translation of fables by
Other works
Daukantas was passionate about the Lithuanian language and its purity. He was concerned that religious books, by far the most popular Lithuanian books at the time, were often translated by foreigners with poor knowledge of Lithuanian. As such, prayer book language was full of
Daukantas was the first to collect examples of all genres (songs, proverbs, fairy-tales, etc.) of Lithuanian folklore.
In 1847, Daukantas began translating and publishing booklets with agricultural advice in hopes that Lithuanian peasants could improve their economic conditions via more efficient and profitable farming methods.
Language and style
Daukantas was passionate about the purity of the
Daukantas had to create numerous
Legacy
While Daukantas died in obscurity and most of his works unpublished, growing
In 1901, Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas discovered the only known contemporary portrait, painted around 1850. Based on this portrait, Petras Rimša created a plaster relief in 1905.[201] In 1910, Daukantas' relatives transferred his manuscripts and library to the Lithuanian Scientific Society which promoted further study of his life and work.[200] Historian Augustinas Janulaitis published an extensive biography of Daukantas in 1913 and his surviving correspondence in 1922.[107] Daukantas works were added to the Lithuanian school curriculum of Lithuanian literature. In 1924, Lithuanian teachers began raising funds for a monument to Daukantas. A bronze sculpture was designed by Vincas Grybas and erected in Papilė in 1930.[202] Since that time, Daukantas life and works were subjects of numerous academic studies. Two volumes of his selected works were published in 1955 followed by reprints or first publications of his other works.[203] His biography was published as separate monographs by Vytautas Merkys (1972, second edition 1991) and Saulius Žukas (1988).[204]
In 1927, a bronze bust by sculptor
Works published by Daukantas
Original title | Modern Lithuanian spelling | Translated title | Pen name | Year | Description |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Prasmą łotinû kałbos | Prasma lotynų kalbos | Primer of the Latin Language | K.W. Myle | 1837 | Latin grammar for Lithuanian students |
Epitome Historiae sacrae | Epitome of Sacred History | (not listed) | 1838 | Latin work by the French author Charles François Lhomond accompanied by a short Latin–Lithuanian dictionary compiled by Daukantas | |
Abecieļa lîjtuwiû-kalnienû ir źiamajtiû kałbos | Abėcėlė lietuvių–kalnėnų ir žemaičių kalbos | Alphabet of Lithuanian–Highlander and Samogitian Language | (not listed) | 1842 | Primer of Lithuanian language |
Budą Senowęs Lietuwiû kalneniu ir Żemaitiû | Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių | The Character of the Ancient Lithuanians, Highlanders, and Samogitians | Jokyb's Łaukys | 1845 | The first history of the culture of Lithuania |
Dajnes Žiamajtiû | Dainos Žemaičių | Song of Samogitians | (not listed) | 1846 | Collection of 118 Lithuanian folk songs and 190 proverbs
|
Pasakas Phedro | Fedro pasakos | Fables of Phaedrus | Motiejus Szauklys | 1846 | Translation of fables by Phaedrus |
Giwatas didiujû karwaidû senowês | Gyvenimas didžiųjų senovės karvedžių | Life of the Great Ancient Warriors | J. Dewinakis | 1846 | Translation of biographies from De viris illustribus by Cornelius Nepos |
Parodimas kajp apinius auginti | Parodymas, kaip apinius auginti | Demonstration How to Grow Hops | Jonas Ragaunis | 1847 | Agricultural advice translated from a German work by B. A. Grunard; includes 390 Lithuanian proverbs[190] |
Pamokimas ape auginimą taboku | Pamokymas apie auginimą tabako | Advice on How to Grow Tobacco | Jonas Girdenis | 1847 | Agricultural advice translated from a Russian work by Dmitry Nikolaevich Strukov |
Naudinga bĩttiû knygele | Naudinga bičių knygelė | Useful Beekeeping Booklet | (not listed) | 1848 | Agricultural advice translated from a German work by Daniel Gottlieb Settegast |
Pamoksłą ape sodnus arba dajginus wajsingû mediû | Pamokslas apie sodus arba daigynus vaisingų medžių | Education on Gardens or Fruit Trees | Anton's Žejmys | 1849 | Agricultural advice translated from a German work by Johann Hermann Zigra |
Pamôkimą kajp rinkti medĩnès siekłàs | Pamokymas, kaip rinkti medžių sėklas | Advice on How to Collect Tree Seeds | Jonas Purwys | 1849 | Agricultural advice translated from Russian (unknown author) |
Ugnęs-kningélę | Ugnies knygelė | Fire Book | Antonas Wajnejkis | 1849 | Advice on fire prevention translated from German |
Siejamoses paszaro-źoles | Sėjamos pašaro žolės | Planting of Fodder Grass | Jonas Warnas | 1854 | Agricultural advice on fodder grass |
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- ^ Baar 2010, p. 154.
- ^ Baar 2010, p. 155–156.
- ^ Merkys 1991, p. 132.
- ^ Merkys 1991, p. 120.
- ^ Merkys 1991, p. 121.
- ^ Merkys 1991, p. 122.
- ^ Lukšienė 2014, p. 212.
- ^ Merkys 1991, p. 142.
- ^ Merkys 1991, pp. 142–143.
- ^ Merkys 1991, pp. 142, 145.
- ^ Jurgutis 1993, pp. 151–152.
- ^ Jurgutis 1993, p. 154.
- ^ Jurgutis 1993, pp. 154–155.
- ^ Merkys 1991, pp. 145–147.
- ^ Jurgutis 1993, p. 157.
- ^ Merkys 1991, p. 135.
- ^ Merkys 1991, p. 136.
- ^ Merkys 1991, p. 137.
- ^ a b Lukšienė 2014, p. 216.
- ^ a b Subačius 2013, p. 552.
- ^ a b Subačius 1997, pp. 140–141.
- ^ Subačius 2016, p. 184.
- ^ Zinkevičius 1990, p. 152.
- ^ Subačius & Vanags 2016, p. 371.
- ^ Merkys 1991, p. 190.
- ^ Merkys 1991, p. 191.
- ^ Merkys 1991, pp. 191–192.
- ^ Merkys 1991, p. 192.
- ^ a b Merkys 1991, p. 193.
- ^ Ruzas 2004a, p. 997.
- ^ Merkys 1991, p. 195.
- ^ Baar 2010, p. 29.
- ^ Baar 2010, p. 25.
- ^ Antanaitienė 2010.
- ^ ELTA 2003.
- ^ a b Mukienė 2010, p. 67.
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External links
- (in Lithuanian) Full-text of Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių