Shell (projectile): Difference between revisions

A shell is a payload-carrying projectile that, as opposed to shot, contains an explosive or other filling, though modern usage sometimes includes large solid projectiles properly termed shot.^{[1][not verified in body]} Solid shot may contain a pyrotechnic compound if a tracer or spotting charge is used. Originally, it was called a "bombshell", but "shell" has come to be unambiguous in a military context.

All explosive- and incendiary-filled projectiles, particularly for mortars, were originally called grenades, derived from the pomegranate, so called because the many-seeded fruit suggested the powder-filled, fragmenting bomb, or from the similarity of shape. Words cognate with grenade are still used for an artillery or mortar projectile in some European languages.^[2]

Shells are usually large-caliber projectiles fired by artillery, combat vehicles (including tanks), and warships.

Shells usually have the shape of a

The earliest record of shells being used in combat was by the Republic of Venice at Jadra in 1376. Shells with fuses were used at the 1421 siege of St Boniface in Corsica. These were two hollowed hemispheres of stone or bronze held together by an iron hoop.^[3]

Written evidence for early explosive shells in China appears in the early

An early problem was that there was no means of precisely measuring the time to detonation — reliable fuses did not yet exist and the burning time of the powder fuse was subject to considerable trial and error. Early powder burning fuses had to be loaded fuse down to be ignited by firing or a portfire put down the barrel to light the fuse. Other shells were wrapped in bitumen cloth, which would ignite during the firing and in turn ignite a powder fuse. Nevertheless, shells came into regular use in the 16th Century, for example a 1543 English mortar shell was filled with 'wildfire'.

By the 18th Century, it was known that the fuse toward the muzzle could be lit by the flash through the

The use of exploding shells from field artillery became relatively commonplace from early in the 19th century. Until the mid 19th century, shells remained as simple exploding spheres that used gunpowder, set off by a slow burning fuse. They were usually made of cast iron, but bronze, lead, brass and even glass shell casings were experimented with.^[6] The word bomb encompassed them at the time, as heard in the lyrics of The Star-Spangled Banner ("the bombs bursting in air"), although today that sense of bomb is obsolete. Typically, the thickness of the metal body was about a sixth of their diameter and they were about two thirds the weight of solid shot of the same caliber.

To ensure that shells were loaded with their fuses toward the muzzle, they were attached to wooden bottoms called sabots. In 1819, a committee of British artillery officers recognized that they were essential stores and in 1830 Britain standardized sabot thickness as a half inch.^[7] The sabot was also intended to reduce jamming during loading. Despite the use of exploding shell, the use of smoothbore cannons firing spherical projectiles of shot remained the dominant artillery method until the 1850s.

Modern shell

The mid 19th century saw a revolution in artillery, with the introduction of the first practical rifled breech loading weapons. The new methods resulted in the reshaping of the spherical shell into its modern recognizable cylindro-conoidal form. This shape greatly improved the in-flight stability of the projectile and meant that the primitive time fuzes could be replaced with the percussion fuze situated in the nose of the shell. The new shape also meant that further, armor-piercing designs could be used.

During the 20th Century, shells became increasingly streamlined. In World War I, ogives were typically two circular radius head (crh) - the curve was a segment of a circle having a radius of twice the shell caliber. After that war, ogive shapes became more complex and elongated. From the 1960s, higher quality steels were introduced by some countries for their HE shells, this enabled thinner shell walls with less weight of metal and hence a greater weight of explosive. Ogives were further elongated to improve their ballistic performance.

Rifled breech loaders

Advances in metallurgy in the industrial era allowed for the construction of rifled breech-loading guns that could fire at a much greater muzzle velocity. After the British artillery was shown up in the Crimean War as having barely changed since the Napoleonic Wars, the industrialist William Armstrong was awarded a contract by the government to design a new piece of artillery. Production started in 1855 at the Elswick Ordnance Company and the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich.^[8][9]

The piece was

The gun was also a breech-loader. Although attempts at breech-loading mechanisms had been made since medieval times, the essential engineering problem was that the mechanism couldn't withstand the explosive charge. It was only with the advances in

Rifled guns were also developed elsewhere - by Major Giovanni Cavalli and Baron Martin von Wahrendorff in Sweden, Krupp in Germany and the Wiard gun in the United States.^[11] However, rifled barrels required some means of engaging the shell with the rifling. Lead coated shells were used with the Armstrong gun, but were not satisfactory so studded projectiles were adopted. However, these did not seal the gap between shell and barrel. Wads at the shell base were also tried without success.

In 1878, the British adopted a copper 'gas-check' at the base of their studded projectiles and in 1879 tried a rotating gas check to replace the studs, leading to the 1881 automatic gas-check. This was soon followed by the Vavaseur copper driving band as part of the projectile. The driving band rotated the projectile, centered it in the bore and prevented gas escaping forwards. A driving band has to be soft but tough enough to prevent stripping by rotational and engraving stresses. Copper is generally most suitable but cupronickel or gilding metal were also used.^[12]

Percussion fuze

Although an early percussion fuze appeared in 1650 that used a flint to create sparks to ignite the powder, the shell had to fall in a particular way for this to work and this did not work with spherical projectiles. An additional problem was finding a suitably stable ‘percussion powder’. Progress was not possible until the discovery of mercury fulminate in 1800, leading to priming mixtures for small arms patented by the Rev Alexander Forsyth, and the copper percussion cap in 1818.

The percussion fuze was adopted by Britain in 1842. Many designs were jointly examined by the army and navy, but were unsatisfactory, probably because of the safety and arming features. However, in 1846 the design by Quartermaster Freeburn of the Royal Artillery was adopted by the army. It was a wooden fuze some 6 inches long and used shear wire to hold blocks between the fuze magazine and a burning match. The match was ignited by propellant flash and the shear wire broke on impact. A British naval percussion fuze made of metal did not appear until 1861.^[13]

Types of fuzes

Smokeless powders

Small arms could not withstand the pressures generated by guncotton. After one of the Austrian factories blew up in 1862, Thomas Prentice & Company began manufacturing guncotton in Stowmarket in 1863; and British War Office chemist Sir Frederick Abel began thorough research at Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills leading to a manufacturing process that eliminated the impurities in nitrocellulose making it safer to produce and a stable product safer to handle. Abel patented this process in 1865, when the second Austrian guncotton factory exploded. After the Stowmarket factory exploded in 1871, Waltham Abbey began production of guncotton for torpedo and mine warheads.^[15]

In 1884,

Britain conducted trials on all the various types of propellant brought to their attention, but were dissatisfied with them all and sought something superior to all existing types. In 1889, Sir Frederick Abel, James Dewar and Dr W Kellner patented (Nos 5614 and 11,664 in the names of Abel and Dewar) a new formulation that was manufactured at the Royal Gunpowder Factory at Waltham Abbey. It entered British service in 1891 as Cordite Mark 1. Its main composition was 58% Nitro-glycerine, 37% Guncotton and 3% mineral jelly. A modified version, Cordite MD, entered service in 1901, this increased guncotton to 65% and reduced nitro-glycerine to 30%, this change reduced the combustion temperature and hence erosion and barrel wear. Cordite could be made to burn slower which reduced maximum pressure in the chamber (hence lighter breeches, etc.), but longer high pressure, significant improvements over gunpowder. Cordite could be made in any desired shape or size.^[18] The creation of cordite led to a lengthy court battle between Nobel, Maxim, and another inventor over alleged British patent infringement.

Other shell types

A variety of fillings have been used in shells throughout history. An incendiary shell was invented by Valturio in 1460. The

A modern version of the incendiary shell was developed in 1857 by the British and was known as Martin's shell after its inventor. The shell was filled with molten iron and was intended to break up on impact with an enemy ship, splashing molten iron on the target. It was used by the Royal Navy between 1860 and 1869, replacing Heated shot as an anti-ship, incendiary projectile.^[20]

Two patterns of incendiary shell were used by the British in World War 1, one designed for use against Zeppelins.^[21]

Similar to incendiary shells were star shells, designed for illumination rather than arson. Sometimes called lightballs they were in use from the 17th Century onwards. The British adopted parachute lightballs in 1866 for 10, 8 and 51⁄2 inch calibers. The 10-inch wasn't officially declared obsolete until 1920.^[22]

Smoke balls also date back to the 17th Century, British ones contained a mix of saltpetre, coal, pitch, tar, resin, sawdust, crude antimony and sulphur. They produced a 'noisome smoke in abundance that is impossible to bear'. In 19th century British service, they were made of concentric paper with a thickness about 1/15th of the total diameter and filled with powder, saltpeter, pitch, coal and tallow. They were used to 'suffocate or expel the enemy in casemates, mines or between decks; for concealing operations; and as signals.^[22]

During the

With this style of ammunition there are three main components the fuzed projectile, the casing to hold the propellants and primer, and the bagged propellant charges. With a separate loading cased charge round the casing, bagged propellant charges and projectile are usually separated into two or more parts. In British ordnance terms, this type of ammunition is called separate quick firing or in US terminology it's called semi-fixed ammunition. Often guns which use separate loading cased charge ammunition use sliding-block or sliding-wedge breeches and during World War I and World War II Germany predominantly used separate loading cased charges and sliding block breeches even for their largest guns. The case still provides obturation, but the number of bagged propellant charges can be varied. Advantages include easier handling for large rounds, while range and velocity can be varied by using more or fewer propellant charges. Disadvantages include more complexity, slower loading, less safety, less moisture resistance and the metal cases can still be a resource issue.^[23]

Separate loading bagged charge

With this style of ammunition there are three main components the fuzed projectile, the bagged charges and the primer. Like separate loading cased charge ammunition, the number of propellant charges can be varied. However, this style of ammunition does not use a cartridge case and it achieves obturation through a screw breech instead of a sliding block. Sometimes when reading about artillery the term separate loading ammunition will be used without clarification of whether a cartridge case is used or not, in which case refer to the type of breech used. Heavy artillery pieces and Naval artillery tend to use bagged charges and projectiles because the weight and size of the projectiles and propelling charges can be more than a gun crew can manage. Advantages include easier handling for large rounds, decreased metal usage, while range and velocity can be varied by using more or fewer propellant charges. Disadvantages include more complexity, slower loading, less safety and less moisture resistance.^[23]

Range enhancing technologies

Extended range shells are sometimes used. These special shell designs may be

The

Explosive rounds as small as

Gun calibers have standardized around a few common sizes, especially in the larger range, mainly due to the uniformity required for efficient military logistics. Shells of 105, 120, and 155 mm diameter are common for NATO forces' artillery and tank guns. Artillery shells of 122, 130 and 152 mm, and tank gun ammunition of 100, 115, or 125 mm caliber remain in use in Eastern Europe and China. Most common calibers have been in use for many years, since it is logistically complex to change the caliber of all guns and ammunition stores.

The weight of shells increases by and large with caliber. A typical 155 mm (6.1 in) shell weighs about 50 kg, a common 203 mm (8 in) shell about 100 kg, a concrete demolition 203 mm (8 in) shell 146 kg, a 280 mm (11 in) battleship shell about 300 kg, and a 460 mm (18 in) battleship shell over 1,500 kg. The Schwerer Gustav supergun fired 4.8 and 7.1 tonne shells.

During the 19th century, the British adopted a particular form of designating artillery. Field guns were designated by nominal standard projectile weight, while howitzers were designated by barrel caliber. British guns and their ammunition were designated in pounds, e.g., as "two-pounder" shortened to "2-pr" or "2-pdr". Usually, this referred to the actual weight of the standard projectile (shot, shrapnel or HE), but, confusingly, this was not always the case.

Some were named after the weights of obsolete projectile types of the same caliber, or even obsolete types that were considered to have been functionally equivalent. Also, projectiles fired from the same gun, but of non-standard weight, took their name from the gun. Thus, conversion from "pounds" to an actual barrel diameter requires consulting a historical reference. A mixture of designations were in use for land artillery from the First World War (such as the

Britain also deployed Palliser shells in the 1870s-1880s. In the shell, the cavity was slightly larger than in the shot and was filled wwith 1.5% gunpowder instead of being empty, to provide a small explosive effect after penetrating armor plating. The shell was correspondingly slightly longer than the shot to compensate for the lighter cavity. The powder filling was ignited by the shock of impact and hence did not require a fuze.[25] However, ship armor rapidly improved during the 1880s and 1890s, and it was realised that explosive shells with steel had advantages including better fragmentation and resistance to the stresses of firing. These were cast and forged steel.^[12]

AP shells containing an explosive filling were initially distinguished from their non-HE counterparts by being called a "shell" as opposed to "shot". By the time of the Second World War, AP shells with a bursting charge were sometimes distinguished by appending the suffix "HE". At the beginning of the war, APHE was common in

High-explosive shells

Although smokeless powders were used as a propellant, they could not be used as the substance for the explosive warhead, because shock sensitivity sometimes caused

.

The percentage of shell weight taken up by its explosive fill increased steadily throughout the 20th Century. Less than 10% was usual in the first few decades; by

FH-70

program. The key requirement for increasing the HE content without increasing shell weight was to reduce the thickness of shell walls, which required improvements in high tensile steel.

The most common shell type is

fuse used the HE shell can be set to burst on the ground (percussion), in the air above the ground, which is called called air burst^[28][29] (time or proximity), or after penetrating a short distance into the ground (percussion with delay, either to transmit more ground shock to covered positions, or to reduce the spread of fragments). Projectiles with enhanced fragmentation are called high-explosive fragmentation (HE-FRAG).^[30]

RDX and TNT mixtures are the standard chemicals used, notably "Composition B" (cyclotol). The introduction of 'insensitive munition' requirements, agreements and regulations in the 1990s caused modern western designs to use various types of plastic bonded explosives (PBX) based on RDX.

Common

Common shells designated in the early (i.e. 1800s) British explosive shells were filled with "low explosives" such as "P mixture" (gunpowder) and usually with fuzes in the nose. Common shells on bursting (they did not "detonate") tended to break into relatively large fragments which continued along the shell's trajectory rather than laterally. They had some incendiary effect.

In the late 19th century "double common shells" were developed, lengthened so as to approach twice the standard shell weight, to carry more powder and hence increase explosive effect. They suffered from instability in flight and low velocity and were not widely used.

As at 1914, common shells 6 inch and up were of cast steel, smaller shells were of forged steel for service and cast iron for practice.^[31] They were replaced by "common lyddite" shells in the late 1890s but some stocks remained as late as 1914. In British service common shells were typically painted black with a red band behind the nose to indicate the shell was filled.

Common pointed

Common pointed shells, or CP were a type of common shell used in naval service from the 1890s - 1910s which had a solid nose and a percussion fuze in the base rather than the common shell's nose fuze. The ogival two C.R.H. solid pointed nose was considered suitable for attacking shipping but was not armor-piercing - the main function was still explosive. They were of cast or forged (three- and six-pounder) steel and contained a gunpowder bursting charge slightly smaller than that of a common shell, a trade off for the longer heavier nose.^[32]

In British service common pointed shells were typically painted black, except 12-pounder shells specific for QF guns which were painted lead colour to distinguish them from 12-pounder shells usable with both BL and QF guns. A red ring behind the nose indicated the shell was filled.

By World War II they were superseded in Royal Navy service by common pointed capped (CPC) and semi-armor piercing (SAP), filled with TNT.

Common lyddite

Lyddite were initially designated "common lyddite" and beginning in 1896 were the first British generation of modern "high explosive" shells. Lyddite is picric acid

fused at 280 °F and allowed to solidify, producing a much denser dark-yellow form which is not affected by moisture and is easier to detonate than the liquid form. Its French equivalent was "melinite", Japanese equivalent was "shimose". Common lyddite shells "detonated" and fragmented into small pieces in all directions, with no incendiary effect. For maximum destructive effect the explosion needed to be delayed until the shell had penetrated its target.

Early shells had walls of the same thickness for the whole length, later shells had walls thicker at the base and thinning towards the nose. This was found to give greater strength and provide more space for explosive.[33] Later shells had 4 c.r. heads, more pointed and hence streamlined than earlier 2 c.r.h. designs.

Proper detonation of a lyddite shell would show black to grey smoke, or white from the steam of a water detonation. Yellow smoke indicated simple explosion rather than detonation, and failure to reliably detonate was a problem with lyddite, especially in its earlier usage. To improve the detonation "exploders" with a small quantity of picric powder or even of TNT (in smaller shells, 3 pdr, 12 pdr - 4.7 inch) was loaded between the fuze and the main lyddite filling or in a thin tube running through most of the shell's length.

Lyddite presented a major safety problem because it reacted dangerously with metal bases. This required that the interior of shells had to be varnished, the exterior had to be painted with leadless paint and the fuze-hole had to be made of a leadless alloy. Fuzes containing any lead could not be used with it.

When World War I began Britain was replacing lyddite with modern "high explosive" (HE) such as TNT. After World War I the term "common lyddite" was dropped, and remaining stocks of lyddite-filled shells were referred to as HE (high explosive) shell filled lyddite. Hence "common" faded from use, replaced by "HE" as the explosive shell designation.

Common lyddite shells in British service were painted yellow, with a red ring behind the nose to indicate the shell had been filled.

Mine shell

Main article:

Minengeschoß

The mine shell is a particular form of HE shell developed for use in small caliber weapons such as 20 mm to 30 mm cannon. Small HE shells of conventional design can contain only a limited amount of explosive. By using a thin-walled steel casing of high tensile strength, a larger explosive charge can be used. Most commonly the explosive charge also was a more expensive but higher-detonation-energy type.

The mine shell concept was invented by the Germans in the Second World War primarily for use in aircraft guns intended to be fired at opposing aircraft. Mine shells produced relatively little damage due to fragments, but a much more powerful blast. The aluminium structures and skins of Second World War aircraft were readily damaged by this greater level of blast.

Shrapnel shells

Main article: Shrapnel shell

Shrapnel shells are an anti-personnel munition which delivered large numbers of bullets at ranges far greater than rifles or machine guns could attain - up to 6,500 yards by 1914. A typical shrapnel shell as used in World War I was streamlined, 75 mm (3 inch) in diameter and contained approximately 300 lead–antimony balls (bullets), each around 1/2 inch in diameter. Shrapnel used the principle that the bullets encountered much less air resistance if they travelled most of their journey packed together in a single streamlined shell than they would if they travelled individually, and could hence attain a far greater range.

The gunner set the shell's time fuze so that it was timed to burst as it was angling down towards the ground just before it reached its target (ideally about 150 yards before, and 60–100 feet above the ground^[34]). The fuze then ignited a small "bursting charge" in the base of the shell which fired the balls forward out of the front of the shell case, adding 200–250 ft/second to the existing velocity of 750–1200  ft/second. The shell body dropped to the ground mostly intact and the bullets continued in an expanding cone shape before striking the ground over an area approximately 250 yards × 30 yards in the case of the US 3 inch shell.^[35] The effect was of a large shotgun blast just in front of and above the target, and was deadly against troops in the open. A trained gun team could fire 20 such shells per minute, with a total of 6,000 balls, which compared very favorably with rifles and machine-guns.

However, shrapnel's relatively flat trajectory (it depended mainly on the shell's velocity for its lethality, and was lethal only in the forward direction) meant that it could not strike trained troops who avoided open spaces and instead used dead ground (dips), shelters, trenches, buildings, and trees for cover. It was of no use in destroying buildings or shelters. Hence, it was replaced during World War I by the high-explosive shell, which exploded its fragments in all directions (and thus more difficult to avoid) and could be fired by high-angle weapons, such as howitzers.

Cluster and sub-munition

Cluster shells are a type of carrier shell or cargo munition. Like

armor and infantry than simple high-explosive shells, since the multiple munitions create a larger kill zone and increase the chance of achieving the direct hit necessary to kill armor. Most modern armies make significant use of cluster munitions

in their artillery batteries.

However, in operational use, sub-munitions have demonstrated a far higher malfunction rate than previously claimed, including those that have self-destruct mechanisms. This problem, the "dirty battlefield", led to the Ottawa Treaty.

Artillery-scattered mines allow for the quick deployment of

minefields

into the path of the enemy without placing engineering units at risk, but artillery delivery may lead to an irregular and unpredictable minefield with more unexploded ordnance than if mines were individually placed.

Signatories of the Ottawa Treaty have renounced the use of cluster munitions of all types where the carrier contains more than ten sub-munitions.

Chemical

Chemical shells contain just a small explosive charge to burst the shell, and a larger quantity of a chemical agent such as a poison gas. Signatories of the Chemical Weapons Convention have renounced such shells.

Non-lethal shells

Not all shells are designed to kill or destroy. The following types are designed to achieve particular non-lethal effects. They are not completely harmless: smoke and illumination shells can accidentally start fires, and impact by the discarded carrier of all three types can wound or kill personnel, or cause minor damage to property.

Smoke

The smoke shell is designed to create a smoke screen. The main types are bursting (those filled with white phosphorus WP and a small HE bursting charge are best known) and base ejection (delivering three or four smoke canisters, or material impregnated with white phosphorus). Base ejection shells are a type of carrier shell or cargo munition.

Base ejection smoke is usually white, however, colored smoke has been used for marking purposes. The original canisters were non-burning, being filled with a compound that created smoke when it reacted with atmospheric moisture, modern ones use red phosphorus because of its multi-spectral properties. However, other compounds have been used; in World War II, Germany used oleum (fuming sulfuric acid) and pumice.

Illumination

Modern illuminating shells are a type of carrier shell or cargo munition. Those used in World War I were shrapnel pattern shells ejecting small burning 'pots'.

A modern illumination shell has a time fuze that ejects a flare 'package' through the base of the carrier shell at a standard height above ground (typically about 600 metres), from where it slowly falls beneath a non-flammable parachute, illuminating the area below. The ejection process also initiates a pyrotechnic flare emitting white or 'black' infrared light.

Typically illumination flares burn for about 60 seconds. These are also known as starshell or star shell. Infrared illumination is a more recent development used to enhance the performance of night vision devices. Both white and black light illuminating shells may be used to provide continuous illumination over an area for a period of time, and may use several dispersed aimpoints to illuminate a large area. Alternatively firing single illuminating shells may be coordinated with the adjustment of HE shell fire onto a target.

Colored flare shells have also been used for target marking and other signaling purposes.

Carrier

The carrier shell is simply a hollow carrier equipped with a fuze that ejects the contents at a calculated time. They are often filled with

Union Flags

and the message "compliments of the season". The shell is still kept in the museum at Ladysmith.

Proof shot

Main article: Proof test

A

proof shot

is not used in combat but to confirm that a new gun barrel can withstand operational stresses. The proof shot is heavier than a normal shot or shell, and an oversize propelling charge is used, subjecting the barrel to greater than normal stress. The proof shot is inert (no explosive or functioning filling) and is often a solid unit, although water, sand or iron powder filled versions may be used for testing the gun mounting. Although the proof shot resembles a functioning shell (of whatever sort), so that it behaves as a real shell in the barrel, it is not aerodynamic as its job is over once it has left the muzzle of the gun. Consequently, it travels a much shorter distance and is usually stopped by an earth bank for safety measures.

The gun, operated remotely for safety in case it fails, fires the proof shot, and is then inspected for damage. If the barrel passes the examination, "

proof marks

" are added to the barrel. The gun can be expected to handle normal ammunition, which subjects it to less stress than the proof shot, without being damaged.

Guided shells

Guided or "smart" ammunition have been developed in recent years, but have yet to supplant unguided munitions in all applications.

• 
  M982 Excalibur. A GPS guided artillery shell.
• 
  M712 Copperhead approaches a target tank
• 
  SMArt 155. An anti-armor shell containing two autonomous, sensor-guided, fire-and-forget submunitions.

Unexploded shells

Main article: Unexploded ordnance

The fuze of a shell has to keep the shell safe from accidental functioning during storage, due to (possibly) rough handling, fire, etc. It also has to survive the violent launch through the barrel, then reliably function at the appropriate moment. To do this it has a number of arming mechanisms which are successively enabled under the influence of the firing sequence.

Sometimes, one or more of these arming mechanisms fail, resulting in a projectile that is unable to detonate. More worrying (and potentially far more hazardous) are fully armed shells on which the fuze fails to initiate the HE firing. This may be due to a shallow trajectory of fire, low-velocity firing or soft impact conditions. Whatever the reason for failure, such a shell is called a blind or unexploded ordnance (

UXO

) (the older term, "dud", is discouraged because it implies that the shell cannot detonate.) Blind shells often litter old battlefields; depending on the impact velocity, they may be buried some distance into the earth, all the while remaining potentially hazardous. For example, antitank ammunition with a piezoelectric fuze can be detonated by relatively light impact to the piezoelectric element, and others, depending on the type of fuze used, can be detonated by even a small movement. The battlefields of the First World War still claim casualties today from leftover munitions. Modern electrical and mechanical fuzes are highly reliable: if they do not arm correctly, they keep the initiation train out of line or (if electrical in nature) discharge any stored electrical energy.

See also

• Ammunition
• Artillery
• Cartridge (firearms)
• Bombshell (sex symbol)

Notes

1. ^ http://www.thefreedictionary.com/shells
2. ^ "Etymology of grenade". Etymonline.com. 8 January 1972. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
3. ^ Hogg pg 164
4. ^ ^{a b} Needham, Joseph. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Page 24–25, 264.
5. ISSN 1619-6074
   .
6. ^ Hogg pg 164 - 165
7. ^ Hogg pg 165
8. doi:10.2307/3105857
   .
9. ^ "William Armstrong".
10. ^ "The Emergence of Modern War".
11. ^ Hogg pg 80 - 83
12. ^ ^{a b} Hogg pg 165 - 166
13. ^ Hogg pg 203 - 203
14. ^ Davis, William C., Jr. Handloading National Rifle Association of America (1981) p.28
15. ^ ^{a b} Sharpe, Philip B. Complete Guide to Handloading 3rd Edition (1953) Funk & Wagnalls pp.141-144
16. ^ Davis, Tenney L. The Chemistry of Powder & Explosives (1943) pages 289–292
17. ^ Hogg, Oliver F. G. Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline (1969) p.139
18. ^ Hogg, Oliver F. G. Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline (1969) p.141
19. ^ Nicolas Édouard Delabarre-Duparcq and George Washington Cullum. Elements of Military Art and History. 1863. p 142.
20. ISBN 978-0-7509-8007-4
    .
21. ^ Hogg pg 171 - 174
22. ^ ^{a b} Hogg pg 174 - 176
23. ^
    OCLC 571972.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link
    )
24. ^ "The Amazing Huascar"
25. ^ Cite error: The named reference ToA1887 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
26. ^
    ISBN 0-7509-1878-0
    pp.151-163
27. ^ Marc Ferro. The Great War. London and New York: Routeladge Classics, p. 98.
28. ^ https://books.google.pl/books?id=nBXSdMCUuBIC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=airburst+artillery+shells&source=bl&ots=hGTZDBFDVn&sig=LXHgw8cYD-iid1o1RdiPd_kFzgY&hl=pl&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiI26jU7tnXAhWEFJoKHfZ9Aow4ChDoAQgqMAE#v=onepage&q=airburst%20artillery%20shells&f=false
29. ^ https://books.google.pl/books?id=U3QsvhRetkcC&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16&dq=airburst+artillery+shells&source=bl&ots=fafHo5qoMN&sig=5J4lqxt0VkD2lqX-B2pogNi6PTY&hl=pl&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjk8fq87tnXAhVpIpoKHUMrBioQ6AEIcjAN#v=onepage&q=airburst%20artillery%20shells&f=false
30. ^ https://www.forecastinternational.com/archive/disp_pdf.cfm?DACH_RECNO=818
31. ^ Treatise on Ammunition (1915), pp. 158, 159, 198. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFTreatise_on_Ammunition1915 (help)
32. ^ Treatise on Ammunition (1915), p. 161. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFTreatise_on_Ammunition1915 (help)
33. ^ Treatise on Ammunition (1915), pp. 37, 158, 159, 198. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFTreatise_on_Ammunition1915 (help)
34. ^ I.V. Hogg & L.F. Thurston, British Artillery Weapons & Ammunition. London: Ian Allan, 1972. Page 215.
35. ^ Douglas T Hamilton, "Shrapnel Shell Manufacture. A Comprehensive Treatise.". New York: Industrial Press, 1915, Page 13

References

• Douglas T Hamilton, "High-explosive shell manufacture; a comprehensive treatise". New York: Industrial Press, 1916
• Douglas T Hamilton, "Shrapnel Shell Manufacture. A Comprehensive Treatise". New York: Industrial Press, 1915
• Hogg, OFG. 1970. "Artillery: its origin, heyday and decline". London: C Hurst and Company.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Artillery ammunition.

• "What Happens When a Shell Bursts," Popular Mechanics, April 1906, p. 408 - with photograph of exploded shell reassembled
• World War II propaganda leaflets at the Wayback Machine (archived 30 September 2007): A website about airdropped, shelled or rocket fired propaganda leaflets. Example artillery shells for spreading propaganda.
• Artillery Tactics and Combat during the Napoleonic Wars
• 5 inch 54 caliber naval gun (5/54) shell.