Unexploded ordnance
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Unexploded ordnance (UXO, sometimes abbreviated as UO), unexploded bombs (UXBs), and explosive remnants of war (ERW or ERoW) are explosive weapons (bombs, shells, grenades, land mines, naval mines, cluster munition, and other munitions) that did not explode when they were employed and still pose a risk of detonation, sometimes many decades after they were used or discarded. When unwanted munitions are found, they are sometimes destroyed in controlled explosions, but accidental detonation of even very old explosives also occurs, sometimes with fatal results. A dud is an unexploded projectile fired in anger against an enemy, but which has failed to explode. A projectile not fired in anger but which has failed to explode is called a 'blind'.
For example, UXO from
Seventy-eight countries are contaminated by land mines, which kill or maim 15,000–20,000 people every year.[1] Approximately 80% of casualties are civilian, with children the most affected age group. An estimated average of 50% of deaths occurs within hours of the blast. In recent years, mines have been used increasingly as weapons of terror against local civilian populations, specifically.[2]
In addition to the obvious danger of explosion, buried UXO can cause environmental contamination. In some heavily used military training areas, munitions-related chemicals such as explosives and perchlorate (a component of pyrotechnics and rocket fuel) can enter soil and groundwater.
Risks and problems
Unexploded ordnance, however old, may explode. Even if it does not explode, environmental pollutants are released as it degrades.[3] Recovery, particularly of deeply-buried projectiles, is difficult and hazardous—jarring may detonate the charge. Once uncovered, explosives can often be transported safely to a site where they can be destroyed; failing that, they must be detonated in place—sometimes requiring hundreds of homes to be evacuated.[citation needed]
Unexploded ordnance from at least as far back as the mid-19th century
Although professional EOD personnel have expert knowledge, skills and equipment, they are not immune to misfortune because of the inherent dangers: in June 2010, construction workers in
In November 2013, four
A dramatic example of munitions and explosives of concern (MEC) threat is the wreck of the
Around the world
Africa
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Effects of the North African campaign of WWII
During the fighting in North Africa between Axis and Commonwealth forces, much of North Africa was heavily mined to prevent advances. During the conflict, in addition to the millions of mines that were placed, some of the millions of shells fired did not explode, and remain deadly to this day. Algeria, Egypt, Libya and Tunisia are all affected by this issue, with civilians being injured and killed every year. UXO also slows progress, with areas having to be demined before being developed[19]
Egypt
Egypt is the most heavily mined country in the world (by number) with as many as 22.7 million mines as of 2024. It is estimated that 22% of Egypt's territory is mined. These mines are from both World War 2 and wars that Egypt has fought with Israel. Mines contaminate large amounts of agricultural land, slowing development efforts. De-mining is a priority in the country to open up more land for agriculture purposes, oil drilling and mining, however Egypt stresses its need to use mines to protect it's borders.[20][21]
Algeria
Algeria has been contaminated with large numbers of mines and UXO throughout several wars, starting from World War 2. During the Algerian war for independence, French forces laid up to 10 million mines on the Morice and Challe lines, on the eastern and western sides of the country. In 2007, France officially handed over maps to Algerian authorities showing the locations of minefields. The lack of these had severely hampered Algerian demining efforts.[22][23][24]
Further mines were laid in the Algerian civil war by both sides, requiring further demining efforts. However these mining operations were not on nearly as large a scale as French operations.[25]
By July 2016, Algeria had reported that it had cleared all major minefields it had identified to clear. Algeria called on French authorities to provide compensation to the families of the 4000 people who are estimated to have been killed by mines, and thousands who have been left disabled from French ordnance.[26]
Libya
Libya was first contaminated with UXO in the Second World War, in areas such as Tobruk, where heavy fighting took place. The contamination from the Second World War is largely unexploded ordnance and
Libya was contaminated during its wars with Egypt and Chad, and it is also believed that the border with Tunisia is contaminated. While Muammar Gaddafi was in power in Libya, mines were placed around military facilities and other key infrastructure.[29][27]
In the first Libyan civil war, both government and opposition forces used mines. According to the Libyan mine action centre, 30-35000 were laid, however these were largely cleared after the downfall of the Gaddafi regime by ex soldiers.[27] With the downfall of the Gaddafi regime, in March 2011 large ammunition depots were left untended, and easily accessible by the civilian population, as well as soldiers and paramilitary forces. The government did not gain regain control of these depots, and munitions from them were spread across the country. Several of the stores also exploded, spreading dangerous ordnance over a wide area. Many military vehicles were also destroyed in the fighting all across the country, and often contain ordnance in a unstable condition. [27][30]
With hostilities breaking out again in 2014, there were reports of both landmines and IED's being laid by opposition groups, largely in urban areas. This complicated clearance operation as these areas are often densely populated. [31]
In 2019 clashes between the LNA and government forces around Tripoli escalated, with the LNA surrounding Tripoli in January 2020 and launching constant rocket and artillery attacks. Both sides were also reported to be using indiscriminate weapons dangerous to civilians banned by international law. Weapons such as drones from Türkiye and China were used, violating the UN arms embargo placed on Libya. When the LNA forces withdrew east of Tripoli in June 2021, they left behind an unspecified amount of IED's. It was reported by the UN mine action service that booby traps were left in civilian homes with the only purpose of causing civilian casualties. In January 2020, the UN estimated that Libya was contaminated by up to 20 million mines and pieces of UXO.[32][27][33]
The Russian paramilitary organisation Wagner which was operating in the area also reportedly left munitions and mines in southern Tripoli. The Humans Right Watch said that the Wagner group and other militias left behind 'enormous' amounts of ordnance. In August 2021 the BBC reported receiving an electronic tablet with information on it stating Wagner operators role in laying mines. Deminers in Tripoli reported finding documents in Russian in rooms that they were demining. On May 24 2022 the Human Rights watch wrote to the Russian foreign minister, asking them to review their findings connecting the Wagner group laying mines in Tripoli, and clarify the contractors role in the conflict. The Russian authorities did not respond.[34][35]
Morocco
The contamination of Moroccan territory is a consequence of the conflict between the Royal Moroccan army and the Polisario Front over the Western Sahara. The majority of the contamination is confined to the area around the Moroccan Western Sahara wall. All along the length of the wall (on the Eastern side) runs a minefield, sometimes claimed to be the worlds longest continual minefield. During the 1975-91 conflict, the Moroccan army used cluster munitions, unexploded bomblets still kill and maim uneducated citizens to this day.[36] [37][38]
Prior to the resumption of hostilities in November 2020, the both the UN and the Moroccan army claimed to have destroyed tens of thousands of land mines, and cleared hundreds of square kilometres of land. [39][40]
Mauritania
Mine and UXO contamination stems from Mauritania's 1976-78 war in the Western Sahara, while fighting against the Polisario front for the region. UXO is largely concentrated to the North of the country, around urban centres, where heavy fighting took place. [41]
Following the urbanisation of 70% of the country's nomadic population, urban expansion has strayed into mine belts. As many of these nomads still follow pastoral practises, valuable livestock and people can stray into contact with mines. Despite this, people are unwilling to move due to the fact that Northern Mauritania is known as the best place to raise camels. It is also difficult to precisely mark mines, due to the fact that dunes can rapidly change their location,[42]
Although the country was declared mine free in 2018, Mauritania reported the discovery of previously unknown mined areas. As of 2023, an estimated 15.5km of Mauritania was contaminated with mines. [43]
Mali
Major contamination of Mali with UXO stems from the resurgence of conflict in 2012 Mali. Mines and IED's were laid more heavily in the north of the country. The situation deteriorated in 2019, however the extant of the contamination is unknown, as their has been no clear mapping of the country's minefields.[44]
Niger
In 2018 Niger reported a known contaminated area near Madama military base, totalling just over 0.2km². Clearance of approximately 18,000m² took place up to March 2020, however no clearance is thought to have taken place since then. In 2023, Niger reported that there were just under 0.2km² of contaminated areas near the Madama military base.
The spread of conflicts in the Lake Chad and Liptako-Gourma regions has contributed new UXO to the regions, with some insurgencies spreading to Niger. IED's have seen increased use, some victim activated and so indiscriminate. Many of the mines used by insurgencies such as Boko Haram are used to target military convoys and vehicles, however inevitably there are civilian casualties. Between 2016 to the end of 2022, the National Commission for the Collection and Control of Illicit weapons reported 183 explosive ordnance incidents, killing 203 and wounding 204. 80% of the incidents occurred in the Tilaberi and Diffa regions.[45][46]
Chad
Chad contains a small amount of contamination from it's wars in the 1960s-80s. Much of this is antipersonnel mines originating from Libyan sources. As of 2020, it was estimated by the Mine Action review that Chad had 10km² of territory contaminated by antipersonnel mines. A small amount of cluster munitions related UXO contaminates some Northern areas.
The jihadist insurgency Boko Haram is likely to have laid mines according to the Government of Chad. Boko-Haram and other insurgencies are known to harvest explosives from UXO to use in IED's, making clearing this UXO all the more important.[47][48]
Sudan
Sudan's mine contamination largely stems from it's civil war and other wars since the countries independence from Britain. In 2005, a peace agreement between the rebel forces (mainly the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement) and the government brought a end to fighting, and along with it mine laying. In 2009, the UN Mine Action Service (UNMAS) reported that across 16 Sudanese states, contamination totalled 107km². Despite conflict breaking out in 2011, by early 2023 it was reported that only just over 13km² of Sudanese land was contaminated with mines, and slightly more contaminated with ERW. [49][50]
In April 2023, heavy fighting broke out between the Sudan Armed Forces (SAF), and the Rapid Support Forces, (RSF), a paramilitary organisation. The SAF alleges that the RSF has laid mines, but as of April 2024 no evidence has emerged to support that claim.[50]
Americas
Colombia
During the long Colombian conflict that began around 1964, a large number of landmines were deployed in rural areas across Colombia. The landmines are homemade and were placed primarily during the last 25 years of the conflict, hindering rural development significantly. The rebel groups of FARC and the smaller ELN are usually blamed for having placed the mines. All departments of Colombia are affected, but Antioquia, where the city of Medellin is located, holds the largest amounts.[51] After Afghanistan, Colombia has the second-highest number of landmine casualties, with more than 11,500 people killed or injured by landmines since 1990, according to Colombian government figures.[52]
In September 2012, the
United States
While unlike many countries in Europe and Asia, the United States has not been subjected to aerial bombardment, according to the Department of Defense, "millions of acres" of US territory may contain UXO, Discarded Military Munitions (DMM) and Munitions Constituents (e.g., explosive compounds).[56]
According to US
On
UXO on US military bases has caused problems for transferring and restoring
The area around Fort St. Philip, Louisiana is also covered in UXO from the naval bombardment, and caution would be taken when visiting the ruins.[citation needed]
UXO cleanup in the US involves over 10 million acres (40,000 km2) of land and 1,400 different sites. Estimated cleanup costs are tens of billions of dollars. It costs roughly $1,000 to demolish a UXO on site. Other costs include surveying and mapping, removing vegetation from the site, transportation, and personnel to manually detect UXOs with metal detectors. Searching for UXOs is tedious work and often 100 holes are dug to every 1 UXO found. Other methods of finding UXOs include digital geophysics detection with land and airborne systems.[59]
Examples
In December 2007, UXO was discovered in new development areas outside
In 1917, in response to other nations' extensive use of
Although comparatively rare, unexploded ordnance from the American Civil War is still occasionally found and is still deadly over 150 years later. Union and Confederate troops fired an estimated 1.5 million artillery shells at each other from 1861 to 1865. As many as one in five did not explode.[67] In 1973, during the restoration of Weston Manor, an 18th-century plantation house in Hopewell, Virginia, that was shelled by Union gunboats during the Civil War, a live shell was found embedded in the dining room ceiling. The ball was disarmed and is shown to visitors to the plantation.[68] In late March 2008, a 44-pound (20 kg), 8-inch (20 cm) mortar shell was uncovered at the Petersburg National Battlefield, the site of a 292-day siege. The shell was taken to the city landfill where it was safely detonated by ordnance disposal experts.[67] Also in 2008, a Civil War enthusiast was killed in the explosion of a 9-inch (23 cm), 75-pound (34 kg) naval shell he was attempting to disarm in the driveway of his home near Richmond, Virginia. The explosion sent a chunk of shrapnel crashing into a house one-quarter mile (400 m) away.[67]
According to Alaska State Troopers, an unexploded aerial bomb, found at a home off Warner Road, was safely detonated by Fort Wainwright soldiers on September 19, 2019.[69]
Canada
After WWII, much unused ordnance in Canada was dumped along the country's eastern and western coasts at sites selected by the Canadian military.[70] Other UXO in Canada is found on sites used by the Canadian military for operations, training and weapons tests.[71] These sites are labeled under the "legacy sites" program created in 2005 to identify areas and quantify risk due to UXO.[71] As of 2019, the Department of National Defence has confirmed 62 locations as legacy sites, with a further 774 sites in assessment.[72] There has been controversy because some lands appropriated by the military during WWII were owned by First Nations, such as 2,000 acres (810 ha) that make up Camp Ipperwash in Ontario, which was given with the understanding that the land would be given back at the end of the war.[73] These lands have required and still need extensive clean-up efforts due to the possible presence of UXO.[73]
Asia
Japan
Thousands of tons of UXOs remain buried across Japan, particularly in
On 29 October 2012, an unexploded 250-kilogram (550 lb) US bomb with a functioning detonator was discovered near a runway at Sendai Airport during reconstruction following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, resulting in the airport being closed and all flights cancelled.[77] The airport reopened the next day after the bomb was safely contained, but closed again on 14 November while the bomb was defused and safely removed.[78]
In March 2013, an unexploded Imperial Army
On 13 April 2014, the JGSDF defused an unexploded 250-kilogram (550 lb) US oil
On 16 March 2015, a 2,000-pound (910 kg) bomb was found in central Osaka.[82]
In December 2019, 100 buildings were evacuated to remove a 500-pound (230 kg) WWII bomb found on Okinawa's Camp Kinser.[83]
South Asia
Afghanistan
According to The Guardian, since 2001, the coalition forces dropped about 20,000 tonnes of ammunition over Afghanistan with an estimated 10% of munitions not detonated according to some experts.[84] Many valleys, fields and dry riverbeds in Macca have been used by foreign soldiers as firing ranges, leaving them peppered with undetonated ammunition. Despite the removal of 16.5m items since mine-clearing programmes were established in 1989 after the Soviet withdrawal, Macca and its predecessors have recorded 22,000 casualties in the same period.[84]
Sri Lanka
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Southeast Asia
Most countries of
Cambodia
The Chinese-made landmines in Cambodia were placed by the Cambodian factions (including the Lon Nol, Khmer Rouge, the Heng Samrin and Hun Sen regimes, as well as the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea who, with international support retained the UN seat throughout much of the 1980s) which clashed during the Civil War in Cambodia in the 1970s and 1980s. The Dangrek genocide in June 1979 was in great part due to civilian victims crossing over landmines placed along the border by Thai, Vietnamese and Khmer Rouge contingents. They were placed in the whole territory of the country. A common problem Cambodians faced with the anti-personnel mines is that even those who placed the mines didn't have maps or memory of their location.[citation needed]
While many mines were placed with the sole intent to harm humans, some were placed with the intent to protect an area. Many sacred temples were surrounded by land mines to protect them from looting, which used to be a major problem. The CMAC (Cambodia Mine Action Center) has cleared many of these areas and put up signs stating their work in previous minefields.Laos
Some 288 million cluster munitions and about 75 million unexploded bombs were left across Laos after the war ended. From 1996 to 2009, more than 1 million items of UXO were destroyed, freeing up 23,000 hectares of land. Between 1999 and 2008, there were 2,184 casualties (including 834 deaths) from UXO incidents.[92][90]
Myanmar
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Vietnam
In Vietnam, 800,000 tons of landmines and unexploded ordnance is buried in the land and mountains.[citation needed] From 1975 to 2015, up to 100,000 people have been injured or killed by bombs left over from the second Indochina war.[citation needed]
At present, all 63 provinces and cities are contaminated with UXO and landmines. However, it is possible to prioritize demining for the Northern border provinces of
"The National Action Plan for the Prevention and Fighting of Unexploded Ordnance and Mines from 2010 to 2025" has been prepared and promulgated by the Vietnamese Government in April 2010.[94]
Middle East
Iraq
Iraq is widely contaminated with unexploded remnants of war from the
Reporting and monitoring is lacking in Iraq and no completely reliable survey and overview of the local threat levels exists. Useful statistics on injuries and deaths caused by UXO is also missing, only singular local reports exist.
Kuwait
The government of Kuwait has launched the Kuwait Environmental Remediation Project, a set of deals of the scale of US$2.9 billion to promote, among other initiatives, the clearance of unexploded ordnance remaining from the First Gulf War.[99]
Regarding specifically the removal of bombs, it is estimated to have a budget in the region of US$20 million.[citation needed]
The companies that have been prequalified as KOC has announced are:[citation needed]
- Azerbaijan National Agency For Mine Action (ANAMA, Azerbaijan)
- EOD Technology (US)
- Expal Systems (Spain)
- Explomo Technical Services (Singapore)
- G4S Risk Management (UK)
- Horizon Assignments (India)
- Maritime & Underwater Security Contractors (UAE)
- Mechem (South Africa)
- Mine / Eodclr (Canada)
- Minetech International (UK)
- Notra (Canada)
- Olive Mine Action (British Virgin Islands)
- Relyant (US)
- RPS Energy (UK)
- Sarvatra Technical Consultants (India)
According to an industry source, KOC is expected to issue another tender later this month. This will request bids on a contract that will include taking 30,000 samples from oil lakes in Kuwait in order to better understand the nature of the pollution in the country's oil-contaminated deserts.[citation needed]
There are numerous mines, bombs and other explosives left from the Persian Gulf war, which makes a simple U-turn on a dirt road a life-threatening maneuver, unless performed entirely in an area covered by fresh tire tracks. Risking walking or driving in unknown areas puts oneself in danger of detonating those forgotten explosives.[citation needed]
In
Weeks right after the Gulf, hospitals in Kuwait reported that mines did not appear to be a major cause of injury. Six weeks after the Iraqi retreat, at Ahmadi Hospital, in an area thick with cluster bombs and Iraqi mines, the only injury was a hospital employee who had picked up an anti-personnel bomb as a souvenir.[citation needed]
Lebanon
Lebanon was initially contaminated by mines during its civil war, with both sides laying mines in the conflict. During several Israeli invasions of South Lebanon, up to 400,000 anti-personnel and anti-tank mines were laid along the Blue line, the 75 mile long demarcation line drawn up by the UN to mark the withdrawal of Israeli forces.[101] [102][103]
In 2014, fighting from the Syrian civil war spilled over into Lebanon when members of the Al-Nusra front militant group attacked the town of Arsal, after one of their leaders was arrested. Fighting ensued for several days, and IED's were left behind when the militants retreated. In 2015, the al Nusra front attacked and seized some Israeli territory, and it took until 2017 for the LBF to fully dislodge them. They left behind IED's to harm civilians, but these were fully cleared by 2023.[101][104][105]
During the 2006 war between Israel and Lebanon, the Israeli defence force used large amount of cluster weapons. For the majority of the war, they were used to target Hezbollah rocket launch points after they were detected by radar. Civilian casualties were reasonably low at this time, as many civilians had fled or were sheltering in basement.[106]
However during the final 72 hours of this war, before the ceasefire, both Hezbollah and Israeli rates of fire greatly increased. It is estimated that 90% cluster bombs used during the war were used in this time. Large areas were affected. It is thought that the Israeli bomblets have a failure rate of about 40%, which is much higher compared to other weapons. For this reason, hundreds of thousands of bomblets still litter the Israeli countryside, killing and maiming people every year. [106][107] [108]
Yemen
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Europe
Despite massive demining efforts, Europe is still affected to some extent by UXO from mainly World War I and World War II, some countries more than others. However, newer and present military conflicts are also affecting some areas severely, in particular the countries of former Yugoslavia in western Balkans and Ukraine.[citation needed]
Austria
WWII's unexploded ordnance in Austria is blown up twice a year in the military training area near Allentsteig. Moreover, explosives are still being recovered from lakes, rivers and mountains dating back to WWI on the frontier between Austria and Italy.[109]
Balkans
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As a result of the
The Federal Civil Protection Administration (FUCZ) team deactivated and destroyed four WWII bombs found at a construction site in the centre of Sarajevo in September 2019.[112]
France and Belgium
In the
In Belgium, Dovo, the country's bomb disposal unit, recovers between 150 and 200 tons of unexploded bombs each year. Over 20 members of the unit have been killed since it was formed in 1919.[115]
In February 2019, a 1,000 lb (450 kg) bomb was found at a construction site at
Germany
In Germany, the responsibility for UXO disposal falls to the states, each of which operates a bomb disposal unit. These are known as the Kampfmittelbeseitigungsdienst (KMBD) or Kampfmittelräumdienst (KRD) ("Explosive Ordnance Disposal Service") and are commonly part of the state police or report directly to a mid-level administrative district. Germany's bomb squads are considered some of the busiest worldwide, deactivating a bomb every two weeks.[117]
An estimated 5,500 UXOs from the Second World War are still uncovered each year in Germany, an average of 15 per day.[118][119] Concentration is especially high in Berlin, where many artillery shells and smaller munitions from the Battle of Berlin are uncovered each year. While most cases only make local news, one of the more spectacular finds in recent history was an American 500-pound (230 kg) aerial bomb discovered in Munich on 28 August 2012.[120] As it was deemed too unsafe for transport, it had to be exploded on site, shattering windows over a wide area of Schwabing and causing structural damage to several homes despite precautions to minimize damage. One of the largest individual pieces ever found was an unexploded 'Tallboy' bomb uncovered in the Sorpe Dam in 1958.[121]
2010s
In 2011, a 1.8-tonne RAF bomb from the Second World War was uncovered in
On December 20, 2016, another 1.8-tonne RAF bomb was found in the city centre of Augsburg and prompted the evacuation of 54,000 people on December 25, which was considered the biggest bomb-related evacuation in Germany's post-war history at the time.[125] In May 2017, 50,000 people in Hanover had to be evacuated in order to defuse three British unexploded bombs.[126]
On 29 August 2017, a British HC 4000 bomb was discovered during construction work near the Goethe University in Frankfurt, requiring the evacuation of approximately 70,000 people within a radius of 1.5 km. This was the largest evacuation in Germany since the Second World War.[127][128][129] Later, it was successfully defused on 3 September.[117] In the meantime, 21,000 residents in Koblenz were evacuated due to an unexploded 500 kg (1,100 lb) bomb dropped by the United States.[130]
On 8 April 2018, a 1.8-tonne bomb was defused in Paderborn, which caused the evacuation of more than 26,000 people.[131] On 24 May 2018, a 550 lb (250 kg) bomb was defused in Dresden after the initial attempts of deactivation failed, and caused a small explosion.[132] On 3 July 2018, a 550 lb (250 kg) bomb was disabled in Potsdam which caused 10,000 people to be evacuated from the region.[133] In August 2018, 18,500 people in the city of Ludwigshafen had to be evacuated, in order to detonate a 1,100 lb (500 kg) bomb dropped by American forces.[7]
In Summer 2018, high temperatures caused a decrease in the water level of the
On 31 January 2019, a WWII bomb was detonated in
On 14 April 2019, 600 people were evacuated when a bomb was discovered in Frankfurt's River Main. Divers with the city's fire service were participating in a routine training exercise when they found the 250 kg (550 lb) device.[143] Later in April, thousands were evacuated in both Regensburg[144] and Cologne, upon the discovery of unexploded ordnance.[145]
On 23 June 2019, a WWII aerial bomb that was buried 4 metres underground in a field in
2020s
In January 2020, 14,000 residents in Dortmund were ordered to leave their homes, during the disposal of two 250 kilograms (550 lb) bombs dropped by American and British forces.[149] On August 2, 2021, 3,000 residents had to evacuate a 300 metres (980 ft) radius of the discovery site of a 250 kilograms (550 lb) unexploded bomb in Borsigplatz area of Dortmund.[150]
On October 29, 2021, a five-year-old boy discovered a British hand grenade from World War II on the playground of his kindergarten "An der Beverbäke" in Oldenburg. He took it home in his backpack.[151] The kindergarten is located on a former barracks site used by the Bundeswehr until 2007, which was converted into a residential area.[152] On December 1, 2021, an old aircraft bomb exploded in the city of Munich during construction near Donnersbergerbruecke station.[153]
On October 11, 2023, authorities ordered residents in
Malta
Malta, then a British colony, was heavily bombarded by Italian and German aircraft during WWII. During the war the Royal Engineers had a Bomb Disposal Section which cleared about 7300 unexploded bombs between 1940 and 1942.[156] UXO is still being found intermittently in Malta as of the early 21st century, and the Explosive Ordnance Disposal unit of the Armed Forces of Malta (AFM) is responsible for removing such ordnance.[157] In July 2021, a Hedgehog anti-submarine mortar which likely fell off a British warship during the war was discovered on a beach in Marsaxlokk and it was successfully removed by the AFM.[158]
Poland
In October 2020, Polish Navy divers discovered a six-ton "Tallboy" British bomb. During the attempt to remotely neutralise the bomb, it exploded in a shipping canal off the Polish port city of Świnoujscie. The Polish Navy considered it a success because the divers were able to ultimately destroy the munition with zero casualties reported.[159] The government reportedly took all necessary measures before they started to defuse the bomb, which included evacuating 750 residents from the site.[160]
Spain
Since the 1980s, more than 750,000 pieces of UXO from the
Ukraine
Ukraine is contaminated with UXO from World War II, former Soviet military training and the current
Since the beginning of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, both Russia and Ukraine have extensively used mines. As of the 22 July 2023, it is estimated that an area of 67,181 square miles of Ukraine are mined.[166] The world bank estimates that it will take $37.4 billion to clear the currently mined areas of Ukraine over a period of ten years.[166] As of September 10, 2023, the estimated number of civilians killed by mines and unexploded ordinance is 989, and this number will increase as the conflict continues and well after the conflict has ended.[167][168]
United Kingdom
UXO is standard terminology in the United Kingdom, although in artillery, especially on practice ranges, an unexploded shell is referred to as a blind, and during the Blitz in World War II an unexploded bomb was referred to as a UXB.
Most current UXO risk is limited to areas in cities, mainly London, Sheffield and Portsmouth, that were heavily bombed during the Blitz, and to land used by the military to store ammunition and for training.[169] According to the Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA), from 2006 to 2009 over 15,000 items of ordnance were found in construction sites in the UK.[170] It is not uncommon for many homes to be evacuated temporarily when a bomb is found.[171] 1,000 residents were evacuated in Plymouth in April 2007 when a Second World War bomb was discovered,[172] and in June 2008 a 1,000-kilogram (2,200 lb) bomb was found in Bow in East London. In 2009 CIRIA published Unexploded Ordnance (UXO) – a guide for the construction industry[173] to provide advice on assessing the risk posed by UXO.
The burden of Explosive Ordnance Disposal in the UK is split between
In May 2016, a 500 lb (230 kg) bomb was found at the former
On September 26, 2019, Invicta Valley Primary School in Kings Hill was reportedly evacuated after an unexploded WW2 bomb was discovered in its vicinity.[180]
In February 2021, thousands of residents of Exeter were evacuated from their homes prior to the detonation of a 1000 kg WWII bomb; the ensuing blast blew out windows and caused structural damage to nearby homes, leaving some uninhabitable.[181]
On 20 February 2024, a 500kg bomb from WWII was found in the garden of a residential property in Keyham, Plymouth. This prompted one of the largest evacuations in the UK since the Second World War, with more than 10,000 people evacuated. On 24 February, the bomb was taken out to sea and detonated, and the cordon in the area lifted.[182][183][184]
Pacific
Buried and abandoned aerial and mortar bombs, artillery shells, and other unexploded ordnance from World War II have threatened communities across the islands of the South Pacific. As of 2014[update] the Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement in the U.S. Department of State's Bureau of Political-Military Affairs invested more than $5.6 million in support of conventional weapons destruction programs in the Pacific Islands.[185]
On the battlefield of
In
In September 2020, two Norwegian People's Aid employees were killed in an explosion in a residential area of Honiara, Solomon Islands, while clearing unexploded ordnance left over from the Pacific War of World War II.[190]
In international law
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Protocol V of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons requires that when active hostilities have ended the parties must clear the areas under their control from "explosive remnants of war". Land mines are covered similarly by Protocol II.[citation needed]
Detection technology
Many weapons, including aerial bombs in particular, are discovered during construction work, after lying undetected for decades. Having failed to explode while resting undiscovered is no guarantee that a bomb will not explode when disturbed. Such discoveries are common in heavily bombed cities, without a serious enough threat to warrant systematic searching.
Where there is known to be much unexploded ordnance, in cases of unexploded subsoil ordnance a remote investigation is done by visual interpretation of available historical aerial photographs. Modern techniques can combine geophysical and survey methods with modern electromagnetic and magnetic detectors. This provides digital mapping of UXO contamination with the aim to better target subsequent excavations, reducing the cost of digging on every metallic contact and speeding the clearance process. Magnetometer probes can detect UXO and provide geotechnical data before drilling or piling is carried out.[191]
In the U.S., the Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP) and Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP)[192] Department of Defense programs fund research into the detection and discrimination of UXO from scrap metal. Much of the cost of UXO removal comes from removing non-explosive items that the metal detectors have identified, so improved discrimination is critical. New techniques such as shape reconstruction from magnetic data and better de-noising techniques will reduce cleanup costs and enhance recovery.[193] The Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council published a Geophysical Classification for Munitions Response guidance document in August 2015.[194] UXO or UXBs (as they are called in some countries – unexploded bombs) are broadly classified into buried and unburied. The disposal team carries out reconnaissance of the area and determines the location of the ordnance. If is not buried it may be dug up carefully and disposed of. But if the bomb is buried it becomes a huge task. A team is formed to find the location of the bomb using metal detectors and then the earth is dug carefully.[citation needed]
Effects post-conflict
There are a variety of effects unexploded ordnance contamination has on post-conflict societies other than physical harm from detonation. Segments of society which are also negatively affected include foreign direct investment, education, aid distribution, industrialization, and the environment.[citation needed]
Industrialisation
UXO presence reduces farming communities’ ability to use industrial machinery due to higher likelihood of triggering a buried munition. AS well as this, large scale infrastructure projects such as road, rail, dam, or bridge building which require heavy machinery are prevented due to the risk of setting off UXO. These two factors in turn reduce road building and therefore prevent other more remote communities from industrializing themselves[195][196]
Aid distribution
Contaminated areas experience more difficulties in providing humanitarian aid to rural or remote communities.[197] Infrastructure for transportation is either impossible to develop, or preexisting infrastructure is difficult to demine.[198]
Aid distribution must be done in a timely manner, and in contaminated countries, significant time and resources are spent to find new routes. If none can be found, aid workers find themselves at increased levels of risk to provide aid.[citation needed]
The total amount of aid which can be delivered decreases in contaminated areas due to a lower frequency of deliveries and transportation vessels needing to be in smaller volumes.[citation needed]
Environmental effects
Demining procedures destroy topsoil.[199] This causes increased erosion and eliminates swathes of arable land.[citation needed]
Munitions which are left over a long period of time degrade and eventually poison the soil or groundwater around them.[200]
Education
The inhibition of necessary resources correlates with decreases in education.[201] Injuries experienced by older members of the community take children away from classrooms to support a family's sustenance agriculture techniques.[citation needed]
Foreign direct investment
Foreign direct investment from more developed nations is discouraged due to difficulty in clearing contaminated areas[202]
See also
- Ammunition dump
- Bombhunters, a 2006 documentary film about the effects of unexploded ordnance on Cambodian people
- Danger UXB, a 1979 British ITV television series set during the Second World War
- Delay-action bomb
- Dud
- Mines Advisory Group
- Ordnance
- Red Zone
- ZEUS-HLONS (HMMWV Laser Ordnance Neutralization System)
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- S2CID 254229353.
- S2CID 252789365.
- S2CID 233907674.
- S2CID 251255780.
- ISSN 2071-1050.
- PMID 35752239.
- S2CID 155052312.
- ISSN 2405-4739.
Further reading
- ISBN 978-1-4087-0255-0.
- Webster, Donovan (1996). Aftermath: The Remnants of War. Pantheon. ISBN 0-679-43195-0.