User:Mexyyy/sandbox
Autism therapies attempt to lessen the deficits and abnormal behaviours associated with
Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about
Many medications are used to treat problems associated with ASD.
Many alternative therapies and interventions are available, ranging from elimination diets to chelation therapy. Few are supported by scientific studies.[16][17][18][19][20] Treatment approaches lack empirical support in quality-of-life contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance.[21] Scientific evidence appears to matter less to service providers than program marketing, training availability, and parent requests.[22] Even if they do not help, conservative treatments such as changes in diet are expected to be harmless aside from their bother and cost.[23] Dubious invasive treatments are a much more serious matter: for example, in 2005, botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old boy with autism.[24]
Treatment is expensive;
Historical approach
Before autism was well understood, children in Britain and America would often be put in institutions on the instruction of doctors and the parents told to forget about them. Observer journalist Christopher Stevens, father of an autistic child, reports how a British doctor told him that after a child was admitted, usually "nature would take its course" and the child would die due to the prevalence of tuberculosis.[34]
Technological interventions
Technology is becoming more prominent in research and practices related to autism. The technology being used includes mainstream and
These technologies can potentially help create new and effective
HANDS project
The
The first prototype of this system has been tested and the results indicate that the software can be useful for helping teenagers with autism act more independently in society. Some situations where the software was useful include learning how to shop for groceries, forming new friendships, keeping organized, and managing stressful situations. Because each teenager was encouraged to use the programs in the toolset that were most suited to their individual needs, the results for each participant were different. Not every teenager experienced benefits from using the device, but the toolset shows promise and has great potential for success.[35] With further development and testing, these benefits could be maximized by expanding the range of activities the toolset can be useful for and by encompassing a broader set of consumers.
Video games
The positive effects of
Both types of video games (mainstream and serious) have shown promise in assisting individuals with autism in their everyday lives.
Mainstream video games
Mainstream video games are just as appealing to individuals with autism as they are to neurotypical individuals. By studying how people with autism react to games’ challenges from sensory, cognitive, and social perspectives, more can be learned about the disorder itself.[39] Learning more about the autism is an important step in learning how to treat it. Serious video games are currently being used to make therapy accessible to individuals who believe psychotherapists are unapproachable. If mainstream video games are proven to be an effective treatment method, they could be used in the same way.
Age-appropriate, mainstream video games can be beneficial to children and teenagers with autism in two ways. First, the ability to play these games allows the individual more opportunities for social interaction with their peers, which increases the possibility that they will learn social skills from these experiences. Second, playing video games as a leisure activity has potential for increasing the individual’s motor skills. In one study, Guitar Hero II was used for these purposes. [37] However, these ideas have not been thoroughly tested and further research is needed to fully support these claims.
Serious games
Let's Face It! program
Let’s Face It! is a joint project between the University of Victoria Brain and Cognition Lab and the Yale Child Study Centre. The program is a collection of seven interactive video games that were created to teach basic face processing skills. These skills include the recognition of facial emotions, interpretation of eye gaze and eye contact, and the recognition of people across changes in facial expression. The program’s goal is to develop effective treatments to enhance the face processing skills of children with autism and other individuals with face processing impairments.[40]
An example game in the program is called Find A Face. This game presents the user with a photograph where five faces have been hidden within the scene. The user’s objective is to locate them. The purpose of this game is to help the user learn to notice and attend to faces in their environment.[40]
During the testing of this software, the participants in the study were given subtests, both before and after using the programs, so their performance could be measured. The results concluded that playing the games for 20 hours could improve the participants’ face processing skills on both an
This program should be used in combination with human interventionists, who may be able to reinforce the principles learned from using the software. Although the program is not intended to be a substitute for human interaction, many believe that the system provides a bridge between face processing skills and real-world face-to-face interaction.[38] With further development and testing, these benefits could be more accurately measured and maximized. Ideally, the skills that are developed and trained using this program will transfer to a non-virtual environment, allowing the participant immediate improvements of facial recognition in real-life social situations.
Educational interventions
Educational interventions attempt to help children not only to learn academic subjects and gain traditional readiness skills, but also to improve functional communication and spontaneity, enhance social skills such as joint attention, gain cognitive skills such as symbolic play, reduce disruptive behavior, and generalize learned skills by applying them to new situations. Several model programs have been developed, which in practice often overlap and share many features, including:[2]
- early intervention that does not wait for a definitive diagnosis;
- intense intervention, at least 25 hours per week, 12 months per year;
- low student/teacher ratio;
- family involvement, including training of parents;
- interaction with neurotypicalpeers;
- structure that includes predictable routine and clear physical boundaries to lessen distraction; and
- ongoing measurement of a systematically planned intervention, resulting in adjustments as needed.
Several educational intervention methods are available, as discussed below. They can take place at home, at school, or at a center devoted to autism treatment; they can be done by parents, teachers, speech and language therapists, and occupational therapists.[2][41] A 2007 study found that augmenting a center-based program with weekly home visits by a special education teacher improved cognitive development and behavior.[42]
Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy.[3] Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options.[4] Concerns about outcome measures, such as their inconsistent use, most greatly affect how the results of scientific studies are interpreted.[43] A 2009 Minnesota study found that parents follow behavioral treatment recommendations significantly less often than they follow medical recommendations, and that they adhere more often to reinforcement than to punishment recommendations.[44] Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills,[2] and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors;[5] claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated.[6]
Applied behavior analysis
Lovaas
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the applied research field of the science of
ABA-based techniques have demonstrated effectiveness in several controlled studies: children have been shown to make sustained gains in academic performance, adaptive behavior, and language, with outcomes significantly better than control groups.[2] A 2009 review of educational interventions for children, whose mean age was six years or less at intake, found that the higher-quality studies all assessed ABA, that ABA is well-established and no other educational treatment is considered probably-efficacious, and that intensive ABA treatment, carried out by trained therapists, is demonstrated effective in enhancing global functioning in pre-school children.[7] These gains maybe complicated by initial IQ.[49] A 2008 evidence-based review of comprehensive treatment approaches found that ABA is well-established for improving intellectual performance of young children with ASD.[5] A 2009 comprehensive synthesis of early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI), a form of ABA treatment, found that EIBI produces strong effects, suggesting that it can be effective for some children with autism; it also found that the large effects might be an artifact of comparison groups with treatments that have yet to be empirically validated, and that no comparisons between EIBI and other widely recognized treatment programs have been published.[50] A 2009 systematic review came to the same principal conclusion that EIBI is effective for some but not all children, with wide variability in response to treatment; it also suggested that any gains are likely to be greatest in the first year of intervention.[6] A 2009 meta-analysis concluded that EIBI has a large effect on full-scale intelligence and a moderate effect on adaptive behavior.[51] However, a 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis found that applied behavior intervention (ABI), another name for EIBI, did not significantly improve outcomes compared with standard care of preschool children with ASD in the areas of cognitive outcome, expressive language, receptive language, and adaptive behavior.[52] Applied behavior analysis is cost effective for administrators [53]
Recently behavior analysts have built comprehensive models of child development (see Behavior analysis of child development ) to generate models for prevention as well as treatment for autism.
Pivotal response therapy
Pivotal response therapy or treatment (PRT) is a naturalistic intervention derived from ABA principles. Instead of individual behaviors, it targets pivotal areas of a child's development, such as motivation, responsivity to multiple cues, self-management, and social initiations; it aims for widespread improvements in areas that are not specifically targeted. The child determines activities and objects that will be used in a PRT exchange. Intended attempts at the target behavior are rewarded with a natural reinforcer: for example, if a child attempts a request for a stuffed animal, the child receives the animal, not a piece of candy or other unrelated reinforcer.[54]
Aversion therapy
The
Communication interventions
The inability to communicate, verbally or non-verbally, is a core deficit in Autism. Children with Autism are often engaged in repetitive activity or other behaviors because they cannot convey their intent any other way. They do not know how to communicate their ideas to caregivers or others. Helping a child with Autism learn to communicate their needs and ideas is absolutely core to any intervention. Communication can either be verbal or non-verbal. Children with Autism require intensive intervention to learn how to communicate their intent.
Communication interventions fall into two major categories. First, many autistic children do not speak, or have little speech, or have difficulties in effective use of language.[56] Social skills have been shown to be effective in treating children with autism.[56] Interventions that attempt to improve communication are commonly conducted by speech and language therapists, and work on joint attention, communicative intent, and alternative or augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) methods such as visual methods.[57] Little solid research supports the efficacy of speech therapy for autism;[58] AAC methods do not appear to impede speech and may result in modest gains.[59] A 2006 study reported benefits both for joint attention intervention and for symbolic play intervention,[60] and a 2007 study found that joint attention intervention is more likely than symbolic play intervention to cause children to engage later in shared interactions.[61]
Second,
Speech therapy
Picture Exchange Communication System
SCERTS
Social Communication/ Emotional Regulation/ Transactional Support.[64]
Relationship based, developmental models
Relationship based models give importance to the relationships that help children reach and master early developmental milestones. These are often missed or not mastered in children with ASD. Examples of these early milestones are engagement and interest in the world, intimacy with a caregiver, intentionality of action.
Relationship Development Intervention
Floortime/DIR
The Floortime/DIR (Developmental, Individual Differences based, Relationship based ) approach is a developmental intervention to autism developed by Stanley Greenspan and Serena Weider. Its core precept is to understand the child's sensory differences, follow the child's lead and use these to encourage children with ASD to climb up the developmental ladder. This approach is based on the idea that the core deficits in autism are individual differences in the sensory system, motor planning problems, the inability to relate and the inability to connect ones desire to intentional action and communication. When addressed through a combination of sensory support and DIR/Floortime techniques, the facilitator is playfully obstructive to redirect the child to play and relate to their therapist. As a result, children can become more social, less repetitive and also develop symbolic abilities.[unreliable medical source?][65]
The DIR model is based on the idea that due to individual processing differences children with ASD do not master the early developmental milestones that are the foundations of learning. DIR outlines six core developmental stages that children with ASD have often missed or not mastered:
- Stage One: Regulation and Interest in the World: Being calm and feeling well enough to attend to a caregiver and surroundings. Have shared attention.
- Stage Two: Engagement and Relating: Interest in another person and in the world, developing a special bond with preferred caregivers. Distinguishing inanimate objects from people.
- Stage Three: Two way intentional communication: Simple back and forth interactions between child and caregiver. Smiles, tickles, anticipatory play.
- Stage Four: Social Problem solving: Using gestures, interaction, babble to indicate needs, wants, pleasure, upset. Get a caregiver to help with a problem. Using pre-language skills to show intention.
- Stage Five: Symbolic Play: Using words, pictures, symbols to communicate an intention, idea. Communicate ideas and thoughts, not just wants and needs.
- Stage Six: Bridging Ideas: This stage is the foundation of logic, reasoning, emotional thinking and a sense of reality.
Most typically developing children have mastered these stages by age 5 years. However, children with ASD struggle with or have missed some of these vital developmental stages. When these foundational abilities are strengthened through the child's lead and through meaningful play with a caregiver, children begin to climb up the developmental ladder. An introduction to DIR/Floortime can be found in the book - Engaging Autism: Using the Floortime Approach to Help Children Relate, Communicate, and Think, by Stanley Greenspan, M.D. and Serena Wieder, PhD.
The P.L.A.Y. Project (or PLAY Project)
The P.L.A.Y. Project (or PLAY Project) [66](an acryonym for PLAY and Language for Autistic Youngsters) is a community-based, national autism training and early intervention program established in 2001 by Richard Solomon, MD.[67] Based on the DIR® (Developmental, Individualized, Relationship-based) theory of Stanley Greenspan MD, the program is designed to train parents and professionals to implement intensive, developmental interventions for young children (18 months to 6 years) with autism. The program is operating in nearly 100 agencies worldwide including 25 states and in 5 countries outside of the U.S. (Australia, Canada, England, Ireland and Switzerland). The PLAY Project has been operating since 2001 from its headquarters in Ann Arbor, MI.
In September 2009, The P.L.A.Y. Project received a $1.85 million grant [68] from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) to conduct a three-year controlled, clinical study of the P.L.A.Y. Project model. Drawing participants from five Easter Seals autism service locations, the study compares the outcomes of 60 children who participate in The P.L.A.Y. Project with the outcomes of 60 children who receive standard community interventions, making it the largest study of its kind. Before and after the 12-month intervention, each child is assessed with a battery of tests to measure developmental level, speech and language, sensory-motor profile, and social skills.
The results of previous research on the program were published by the peer-reviewed British journal, Autism [69] (May, 2007).
Son-Rise
Son-Rise is a home-based program that emphasizes on implementing a color and sensory-free playroom. Before the home-based program, however, an institute teaches the method to the parents for a week. The staff train parents how to accept their child without judgment through a series of dialogue sessions. What differentiates them from other play therapies is after they mimic a child's repetitive and restricted behaviors and the child moves further away from interaction, the facilitator continues to join them only this time through parallel play. The goal is to get the child's willing engagement. Proponents claim that children will decide to become non-autistic after parents accept them for who they are and engage them in play. The program was started by the parents of
TEACCH
Treatment and education of autistic and related communication handicapped children (TEACCH), which has come to be called "structured teaching", emphasizes structure by using organized physical environments, predictably sequenced activities, visual schedules and visually structured activities, and structured work/activity systems where each child can practice various tasks.[2] Parents are taught to implement the treatment at home. A 1998 controlled trial found that children treated with a TEACCH-based home program improved significantly more than a control group.[73]
Sensory integration
Unusual responses to
The term Sensory integration in simple terms means the ability to use all of ones senses to accomplish a task. Occupational Therapists sometimes prescribe sensory treatments for children with Autism however in general there has been little or no scientific evidence of effectiveness.[76]
A recent book My Stroke of Insight by Jill Bolte Taylor gives some insight, from a brain researcher's point of view, on what sensory dysfunction feels like. Other books on sensory integration include The Out of Sync Child - Recognizing and Coping with Sensory Processing Disorder by Carol Kranowitz and Lucy Jane Miller.
Massage therapy
A review of
Music
Music therapy uses the elements of music to let people express their feelings and communicate. Two small studies have reported short-term improvement in verbal and gestural communication skills of children with autism from a week's work of daily sessions; no significant effects on behavior problems were observed.[81]
Animal-assisted therapy
Animal-assisted therapy, where an animal such as a dog or a horse becomes a basic part of a person's treatment, is a controversial treatment for some symptoms. A 2007 meta-analysis found that animal-assisted therapy is associated with a moderate improvement in autism spectrum symptoms.[82] Reviews of published dolphin-assisted therapy (DAT) studies have found important methodological flaws and have concluded that there is no compelling scientific evidence that DAT is a legitimate therapy or that it affords any more than fleeting improvements in mood.[83]
Neurofeedback
Neurofeedback attempts to train individuals to regulate their brainwave patterns by letting them observe their brain activity more directly. In its most traditional form, the output of EEG electrodes is fed into a computer that controls a game-like audiovisual display. Neurofeedback has been evaluated with positive results for ASD, but studies have lacked random assignment to controls.[84]
Patterning
Patterning is a set of exercises that attempts to improve the organization of a child's neurologic impairments. It has been used for decades to treat children with several unrelated neurologic disorders, including autism. The method, taught at the The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential, is based on oversimplified theories and is not supported by carefully designed research studies.[85]
Packing
In packing, children are wrapped tightly for up to an hour in wet sheets that have been refrigerated, with only their heads left free. The treatment is repeated several times a week, and can continue for years. It is intended as treatment for autistic children who harm themselves; most of these children cannot speak. Similar envelopment techniques have been used for centuries, such as to calm violent patients in Germany in the 19th century; its modern use in France began in the 1960s, based on psychoanalytic theories such as the theory of the
Parent mediated interventions
Parent mediated interventions offer support and practical advice to parents of autistic children.
Medical management
Drugs, supplements, or diets are often used to alter physiology in an attempt to relieve common autistic symptoms such as seizures, sleep disturbances, irritability, and hyperactivity that can interfere with education or social adaptation or (more rarely) cause autistic individuals to harm themselves or others.[92] There is plenty of anecdotal evidence to support medical treatment; many parents who try one or more therapies report some progress, and there are a few well-publicized reports of children who are able to return to mainstream education after treatment, with dramatic improvements in health and well-being. However, this evidence may be confounded by improvements seen in autistic children who grow up without treatment, by the difficulty of verifying reports of improvements, and by the lack of reporting of treatments' negative outcomes.[93] Only a very few medical treatments are well supported by scientific evidence using controlled experiments.[92]
Prescription medication
Many medications are used to treat problems associated with ASD.[10] More than half of U.S. children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics.[11] Only the antipsychotics have clearly demonstrated efficacy.[12]
Research has focused on
Other drugs are prescribed
Aside from antipsychotics,
Dietary supplements
Many parents give their children dietary supplements in an attempt to treat autism or to alleviate its symptoms. The range of supplements given is wide; few are supported by scientific data, but most have relatively mild side effects.[17][92]
A review found some low-quality evidence to support the use of vitamin B6 in combination with magnesium at high doses, but the evidence was equivocal and the review noted the possible danger of fatal hypermagnesemia.[106] A Cochrane Review of the evidence for the use of B6 and magnesium found that "[d]ue to the small number of studies, the methodological quality of studies, and small sample sizes, no recommendation can be advanced regarding the use of B6-Mg as a treatment for autism."[107]
Dimethylglycine (DMG) is hypothesized to improve speech and reduce autistic behaviors,[17] and is a commonly used supplement.[92] Two double-blind, placebo-controlled studies found no statistically significant effect on autistic behaviors,[17] and reported few side effects. No peer-reviewed studies have addressed treatment with the related compound trimethylglycine.[92]
Vitamin C decreased stereotyped behavior in a small 1993 study. The study has not been replicated, and vitamin C has limited popularity as an autism treatment. High doses might cause kidney stones or gastrointestinal upset such as diarrhea.[92]
Melatonin is sometimes used to manage sleep problems in developmental disorders. Adverse effects are generally reported to be mild, including drowsiness, headache, dizziness, and nausea; however, an increase in seizure frequency is reported among susceptible children.[17] A 2008 open trial found that melatonin appears to be a safe and well-tolerated treatment for insomnia in children with ASD. and suggested controlled trials to determine efficacy;[108] a small 2009 retrospective study had similar results for adults.[109]
Although
Several other supplements have been hypothesized to relieve autism symptoms, including
Diets
Atypical eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur;
In the early 1990s, it was hypothesized that autism can be caused or aggravated by
Other
Chelation therapy
Based on the speculation that
Chelation therapy can be hazardous. In August 2005, an incorrect form of EDTA used for chelation therapy resulted in hypocalcemia, causing cardiac arrest that killed a five-year-old autistic boy.[24]
Chiropractic
Chiropractic is an alternative medical practice whose main hypothesis is that mechanical disorders of the spine affect general health via the nervous system, and whose main treatment is spinal manipulation. A significant portion of the profession rejects vaccination, as traditional chiropractic philosophy equates vaccines to poison.[122] Most chiropractic writings on vaccination focus on its negative aspects,[123] claiming that it is hazardous, ineffective, and unnecessary,[122] and in some cases suggesting that vaccination causes autism[123] or that chiropractors should be the primary contact for treatment of autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders.[124] Chiropractic treatment has not been shown to be effective for medical conditions other than back pain,[125] and there is insufficient scientific evidence to make conclusions about chiropractic care for autism.[126]
Craniosacral therapy
Electroconvulsive therapy
Studies indicate that 12–17% of adolescents and young adults with autism satisfy diagnostic criteria for catatonia, which is loss of or hyperactive motor activity. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has been used to treat cases of catatonia and related conditions in people with autism. However, no controlled trials have been performed of ECT in autism, and there are serious ethical and legal obstacles to its use.[129]
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy
Prosthetics
Unlike conventional neuromotor
Affective computing devices, typically with image or voice recognition capabilities, have been proposed to help autistic individuals improve their social communication skills.[132] These devices are still under development. Robots have also been proposed as educational aids for autistic children.[133]
Stem cell therapy
Alternative medicine
Acupuncture has not been found to be helpful. [135]However, ongoing research suggests that so-called "sham acupuncture" used in the cited study is an ineffective method to test the usefulness of acupuncture.
Religious interventions
The
Ultraorthodox Jewish parents sometimes use spiritual and mystical interventions such as prayers, blessings, recitations of religious text, holy water, amulets, changing the child's name, and exorcism.[139]
One study has suggested that
Anti-cure perspective
The exact cause of autism is unclear, yet some organizations advocate researching a cure. Some autism rights organizations view autism as a way of life rather than as a disease and thus advocate acceptance over a search for a cure.[141][142]
See also
- Effects of equine assisted therapy on autism
- Ryan's Law
- Potential positive effects of video games
- Video game benefits
- Technology and mental health issues
- Classifications and subsets of serious games
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Further reading
- William Shaw, Bernard Rimland, Biological treatments for autism and PDD, 3rd ed., W. Shaw, 2008 ISBN 0966123816
- Ministries of Health and Education. New Zealand Autism Spectrum Disorder Guideline [PDF]. Wellington: Ministry of Health; 2008. ISBN 978-0-478-31257-7.
- Fitzpatrick M. Defeating Autism: A Damaging Delusion. London: Routledge; 2008. ISBN 0-415-44981-2. Reviewed in: Guldberg H. spiked. 'Autistic children are now seen as a burden'; 2008-12-19.
- Posey DJ, McDougle CJ. Preface. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2008;17(4):xv–xviii. PMID 18775365. This describes a special issue of the journal Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, titled "Treating Autism Spectrum Disorders" (volume 17, issue 4, pages 713–932) and dated October 2008.
- Kidd, P. M. (2002). "Autism, an extreme challenge to integrative medicine. Part 2: medical management" (PDF). Alternative Medicine Review : A Journal of Clinical Therapeutic. 7 (6): 472–499. PMID 12495373.
- Bryson SE, Rogers SJ, Fombonne E. Autism spectrum disorders: early detection, intervention, education, and psychopharmacological management. Can J Psychiatry. 2003;48(8):506–16. PMID 14574826.
- Erickson CA, Posey DJ, Stigler KA, McDougle CJ. Pharmacologic treatment of autism and related disorders. Pediatr Ann. 2007;36(9):575–85. PMID 17910205.
External links
- Mexyyy/sandbox at Curlie