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Intermediate Years

From the time of the disappearance of the Lost Colony in 1587 to the Battle of Roanoke Island in 1862, Roanoke was characterized by isolation due to its weather and geography. After the failure of the English Roanoke Colony, Native peoples on the island endured for seventy more years. Archaeology from the Tilliet sight indicates that the Roanoke population persisted until 1650. Written accounts from the turn of the 20th century indicate visible remnants of the final native presence survived at least until the 1930's. A large mound 200 feet tall and 600 feet was recorded in Wanchese in the early 1900's[1].

The 1650 date corresponds the

Jamestown Colony in 1646 where invaders from Virgina drove the Secotan Tribe out of Outer Banks region. Survivors of the English Invasion fled southwards and became the Machapunga[2]. The Machapunga fought as alongside the Tuscarora Indians against English encroachment in 1711, after their defeat they settled and adapted to English lifestyle around Hyde County, North Carolina. Their descendants now live in the Inner Banks of North Carolina and continued to carry some native customs until 1900. Some in the former Roanoke Tribe went to Hatteras Island and maintained good relations with the English, being granted a reservation in 1759, decedents of the Roanoke-Hatteras tribe merged with English Communities. The 2000 federal census found that 83 descendants from the Roanoke and Hatteras Tribe live in Dare County, others lived in the states of Maryland and Virginia[3]
.


With Roanoke Island open for settlement, English Virginians moved from Tidewater Virginia to settle in Northeast North Carolina's Albremarle Region. In 1665 The Carolina Charter established the colony of Carolina under rule of landowners called the Lord Proprietors. Carolina under its original named Carolana included the territory of modern North and South Carolina[4]. Early organized English towns in North Carolina include Elizabeth City and Edenton. Pioneers crossed southwards across the Albremarle Sound to settle in Roanoke Island. They came primarily to establish fishing communities but also practiced forms of subsistence agriculture on the Northern parts of Roanoke Island. Most of the Pioneers had originally immigrated to the American Colonies from Southern English Paraishes such as Kent, Middlesex and Westcountry.Upon the creation of the Royal British Province of North Carolina in 1729 Roanoke Island became part of Currituck County. During the rule of the Lord Proprietors Roanoke Island had been a part of Currituck Parish.[5]. It was during this time that historical families to Roanoke Island arrived including Daniels, Tillets, Basnights, Etheridge and others.

Roanoke Island did not have any incorporated towns until Manteo was founded in 1870. From the 1650's to the Civil War period the Virginia settlers developed the distinct Hoi Toider dialect across the Outer Banks[6]. The island was ill suited for commercial agriculture or for a deep water port and remained isolated with little interference from outsiders. The nearby community of Manns Harbor came into being as a small trading post where goods were transported across the Croatan Sound. Unlike inland North Carolina the British authorities made no roads within or nearby Roanoke, the Tidewater region of North Carolina was avoided entirely[7]. The development of Colonial Roanoke Island also depended on the natural opening and closing of inlets on Bodi and Hatteras Islands to its east. As in other times the Island was struck by deadly hurricanes.

During the Revolutionary War there were eight recorded encounters fought in nearby Hatteras Ocracoke and the High Seas. These battles were between American privateers, or local ships from Edenton against small ships from the Royal Navy. Patrolling Royal Navy often had little to place to rest during their duty. On August 15th 1776 a British patrol sent foragers to the now extinct Roanoke Inlet in modern day Nags Head to steal cattle. The Outer Banks Independent Company who was guarding Roanoke Island and the Outer Banks killed or captured the entire party. This battle while not on Roanoke Island itself was less than three miles away[8]. Skirmishes involving ships continued until 1780 but no large land battles occurred in the area, Roanoke Island was largely spared from war violence[9].

Later During the War of 1812 the British Royal Navy planned for an Invasion of North Carolina's Outer Banks, the invasion was aborted on Hattaras Island because there was nothing worthy for the British to occupy or pillage. The Invasion force then moved northward to attack Chesapeake Bay communities in Virgina[10]. Roanoke Island continued its isolation until authorities of the Confederate States of America hastily prepared Roanoke Island to defend Coastal North Carolina from the invading Unionist Navy and Army. After passing by Cape Hatteras Union forces attacked Roanoke Island in 1862.

Antebellum Period- Becoming the Seat of Dare County

In the aftermath of the Civil War the area which is today Dare County was still split between Tyrell, Currituck and Hyde. In 1870 Dare County being named after the famous Virgina Dare became independent from the surrounding areas. Originally in April of 1870 The Town of Roanoke Island was founded and Christened as the County Seat. In May the town's name was changed to Manteo, Manteo became the first place on in Dare County to have a post office. Roanoke Island went from being the outpost of Currituck to being the center of power in the new county. Dare County was allocated lands which included the Mainland, Roanoke Island and the beaches from Cape Hatteras upwards towards Duck[11].

Outside Interest in the history of the Roanoke Island took hold for the first time. The State of the North Carolina protected the historical Fort Raleghi Site that had been the location of the 1584 and 1585 English expeditions. N.C State Senator

Zebulon Vance
attempted to build a monument in honor of the Colony in 1886 but was rebuffed by Congress because the bill would have distracted attention from Plymouth, Massachusetts.

The Town of Manteo grew as the center of business in Dare County, though it was not even the largest community in the county at the time. Buffalo City on the mainland had over 3,000 on the mainland but the community did not endure into present times. Manteo while technically a new town was a combination of estates of landowners who had already resided on the island for two centuries. The organization of the town did spur new growth, as it became a central hub for the area. The waterfront become a bustling port with a network to Buffalo City, Edenton and Elizabeth City. Local fisherman, boat builders and landowners built fortunes whose wealth was later redistributed into new development.

There are five historically registered sites within Downtown Manteo all the turn of the 20th century. At the time Manteo carried a North American styled Queen Ann architecture combined with unique elements that reflected its costal Environment. Churches such as Mount Olivet Methodist and Manteo Baptist were early community centers that guided local life. The construction of the island's first Court House symbolized the permanence of organized government. Manteo became Roanoke Island's only incorporated town in 1899[12].

The population of the entire island grew and a community formed in the geographical center of the island, between the North and the South. Skyco received a U.S Post Office in 1913[13].

As seasonal tourists began to take interest Roanoke became more aligned with the national culture. In 1917 the Pionner Theater was established showing movies from around the country, the theater remains in existence as one of America's remaining small theaters. The transition from a wholly subsistence to a to a partial consumer economy began to gradually take place on the eve of the construction of the first bridge.

The First Bridge

The communities of Roanoke were transformed by the construction of the first bridge connecting the island eastwards to Nags Head in 1924. For the first time automobiles were introduced where travel by water, or horse had been more common previously. The bridge marked the first time that higher level infrastructure had been brought to the island. The 1924 Bridge would be the only road connection to Roanoke Island for over thirty years. Around the same time NC 345, Roanoke Island's first paved road for automobiles that covered the entire extent of the land from the marshes of Wanchese to the Northend. The north edge of 345 corresponded with a ferry that went to Manns Harbor on the mainland. The North Carolina department of transportation subsidized the Roanoke Island ferry in 1934 to lower ticket costs, this was origin of the modern N.C ferry system [14].

Both Manteo, in the north and Wanchese in the south were transformed by the construction of the first Nags Head Bridge. Manteo which had previously been a small port reliant on trade with Elizabeth City and Edenton were connected to wider transportation network of North Carolina and the Virginian

Tidewater
region. The docks of Downtown Manteo began to decline as the bridge road became the center of commerce.Roanoke Island became industrialized for the first time in Wanchese. In 1936 the now global Wanchese Fish Cooperation was incorporated by the Daniels Family as a processing and packing plant for fish, scallops and shrimp.

As Roanoke had been introduced in the national market economy by the bridge, and its fishing sales the local economy also suffered from the Great Depression. Another dealt was blown in the 1933 Outer Banks Hurricane that made landfall in Hatteras before moving northwards toward Nova Scotia. Over 1,000 people lost their homes across Eastern North Carolina and 24 fatalities were reported. The waterfront of Manteo was mostly destroyed by a severe fire as well.

In response to the crisis, the New Deal came to Roanoke Island to provide desperately needed employment and to highlight Roanoke's importance for the history of the United States. The outdoor theater playThe Lost Colony written by Paul Green began in 1936 and attracted the visit of President Franklin Roosevelt in 1937. The Lost Colony continues its performance every summer season. The onset of WWII with the German declaration of war in December, 1941 effected the island directly.

Atlantic War

Also see Torpedo Alley The Battle of the Atlantic between the Germans and the Allies directly impacted Roanoke Island. The Submarine U-Boats which had previously only targeted British ships approached the coast of the Outer Banks to attack convoys supplying Great Britain from North America. Battles were fought less than 10 miles off the coast of the Outer Banks. In nearby Hatteras and Nags Head, remains of destroyed ships and their crews washed ashore. The Outer Banks was part of the infamous Torpedo Ally where over 5,000 American and British Sailors died.

On Roanoke Island itself a total night-time black out was enforced through all of WWII. The Summer performances of the Lost Colony were cancelled from 1942-1945. In response to the crisis, authorities sanctioned the construction of the Roanoke Island airport on the northern side which still functions today. In the 1930's there had been a privately owned airport close to Wanchese.

Connection to the Mainland

Redevelopment in Manteo and Wanchese

In 1984 the four hundredth anniversary of English exploration in the area

Geography

Towns

Notable Locations

Maps of Roanoke Island

References

Post Classical Ideas

Well-known medieval artworks, each representing a certain civilization. From left to right: Moai Statues (Polynesia), Machu Picchu Inca Empire, Mask of Pacal the Great (Mayan Civilization), The Book of Kells (Celtic Christianity), Notre-Dame de Paris (French Gothic architecure), Mosaic of Theodora (Byzantium), Dome of the Rock (Islamic Golden Age), Gur-e-Amir Djinguereber Mosque (Mali Empire), (Timurid Empire), Diamond Sutra (Imperial China), Nataraja (Chola dynasty), and Portrait of Jayavarman VII at Bayon (Khmer Empire)



Feudalism

Main article: Examples of feudalism

In the context of global history, the label of Feudalism can be used to describe any agricultural society where central authority broke down to be replaced by a warrior aristoracy. A society or state that relies on personal relationships with millitary elites more than a bureaucracy with a state-supported professional standing army.[15] The label of feudalism can then be used to describe many areas of Eurasia including High Medieval Europe, the Islamic Iqta , Indian Feudlaism and Heian Japan. Historians generalize that diverse socities can be called feudal if authority was fragmented accompanied by a set of obligations between vassal and lord. After the year 8th century Feudalism became more common across Europe. Even Byzantium which had inherited the government of the Roman Empire choose to devolve its millitary obligations into themes to increase the number of soliders and ships avaliable for millitary service during a time of crisis. [16]European Feudalism and the Islamic Iqta have simlarities both a reliance on mounted warriors that held land titles granted by a monarch or sultan.[17] Furthermore religous wars did not often change existing relationships, ie: Islamic Dehli Sultate having conquered much of India left local feudal structures in place except for demanding higher taxes based on Islamic rules. [18]

By stark contrast, China employed a centralized beauacracy throughout the post classical period (500-1500) and was one of the only countries in Eurasia that was not feudal at the time.[19]

Beyond a general and broad generalazation the usefulness of 'feudalism' is debated by contemporary historians as the daily functions of feudalism sometimes differed greatly between world regions.[20] The comparision betwen European Feudalism and Japan during the same time period has been particulary controversial. While 20th century historians compared Medieval Europe to premodern Japan It has been arguged that at until 1400 Japan decentralized millitary power was also balanced with imperial (govermental) and monastic (religous) authority. Only with the Sengaku Jidai was there truly decentralized power dominated by private millitary leaders.[21][22] Theere are also historians that reject the term feudalism in its entirely as an useful term to describe societies in medieval Europe or elsewhere. \[23]

Climate

Main articles: Historical climatology and Little Ice Age

During Post-Classical times, there is evidence that many regions of the world were effected similarly by global climate conditions however, direct effects in temperature and precipitation varied by region. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change changes did not all occur sanctimoniously at once. Generally however studies found that temperatures were relatively warmer, in the eleventh century, but colder by the early seventeenth century. It is uncertain the degree of climate change which occurred in all regions across the world, and whether such changes were all part of a global trend. Climate trends seemed to be more recognizable along the northern hemisphere than the southern hemisphere.

There are climate periods that could be roughly said to account for large scale climate trends in the Post Classical Period. These include the

Extreme Weather Events of 536-537 initiated by the eruption of Indonesian Volcano initiated global cooling, migrations and crop failures world-wide possibly intensifying an already cooler time period.[24]
Records show that the world's temperature remained colder on average for at least a century afterwards.

The Medieval Warming Period from 950-1250 occurred mostly throughout the northern hemisphere causing many areas to have warmer summers, the high temperatures would only be surpassed by the Global Warming of the 20th/21st centuries. It has been hypothesized that the warm of temperatures allowed the Norse to colonize Greenland, due to ice-free waters at the time. Outside of Europe there is evidence of warming conditions, including higher temperatures in China and major North American droughts which adversely effected numerous cultures.

After 1250, glaciers began to expand in Greenland, cooling the entire North Atlantic.In the 14th century, the growing season in Europe became unreliable, meanwhile in China the cultivation of Oranges were driven southward by colder temperatures. Especially in Europe, the Little Ice Age had large cultural ramifications.[25] The Little Ice Age would persist until the industrial revolution, far beyond the the time-frame of the Post Classical Period. The causes for the little Ice-Age are unclear, possible explanations include Solar Sunspots, Orbital Cycles of Earth, Volcanic Activity, Ocean Circulation, and Population Decline.

Science

Main articles:
History of Science § China
Westerner and Arab practicing geometry 15th century manuscript

The term Post Classical Science is often used in Academic Circles and in college courses to combine the study of Medieval European Science and Medieval Islamic Science due to their interactions with one another.[26] However Science from Eastern Eurasia, particularly from China was spread westward by Arabs due to both war and trade. The Islamic World also benefited from medical knowledge from South Asia which was later spread westward.[27]

In the case of the Western World and in Islamic realms much emphasis was placed on preserving the rationalist Greek Tradition of figures such as Aristotle. In the context of science within Islam there is a debate as to weather Islamic Scientists simply preserved accomplishments from Antiquity or built upon earlier Greek advances.[28] [29] In any case Classical European Science was brought to Christian Kingdoms due to the experience of the Crusades.

As a result of Persian trade in China, and the battle of the Talas River, Chinese innovations entered the Islamic Intellectual World. These include advances in astronomy and in paper-making. [30][31] Paper making spread through the Islamic World as far west as Islamic Spain, before paper-making was acquired for Europe by the Reconquista. There is a debate on the transmission of gunpowder on whether the Mongols introduced Chinese gunpoweder weapons to Europe or if separate gunpowder weapons were invented in Europe independently.[32][33]

Oceania (possibly)

Main article: History of Oceania

Separate from developments in the Old World and the Americas the region of greater Oceania continued to develop independently of the outside world. In Australia, the society of Aborigines and Melanesia changed little through the Post Classical Period, they had first arrived in the area from Africa around 50,000 B.C.E, the only outside contact would have possibly been fishermen of Indonesian origin. Polynesian and Micronesian Peoples are rooted from Taiwan and Southeast Asia and began their migration in 3000-1500 B.C.

During Post-Classical Times the

Oral Tradition claimed that navigator Ui-te-Rangiora discovered either icebergs of the Southern Ocean or the Ross Ice Shelf
of Antarctica.

There is a hypothesis that

Pre-Columbian contact took place between Polynesians and South America but this is in dispute. Traces of Sweet Potatoes native to South America have been discovered on Easter Island to 1300, but this may had occurred without human facilitation.[34] [35]
There is also evidence Polynesian Chickens in Peru radiocarbon dated to the 13th/14th centuries, but the origins of the chickens were later stated to come from Eurasia. Linguistic evidence involving similarities of certain words for Axe and Sweet Potato appear to substantiate sporadic contact according to linguists.

On the islands they settled some Polynesian groups became distinct from one another a significant example being the Maori of New Zealand, others island systems kept in contact with each other such has Hawaii and the Society Islands. Ecologically, Polynesians had the challenge of sustaining themselves within limited environments. Some settlements caused mass extinctions of some native plant and animal species over time by hunting species such as the Moa and introducing the Polynesian Rat.[36] Others adapted to accommodate their specific island such as the Moriori of the Chatham Islands while others engaged in complete ecological destruction.[37] Easter Island settlers eventually destroyed the native forests and their population crashed afterwards possibly due to the construction of the Easter Island Statues.[38]

Europeans on their voyages visited many Pacific Islands in the 16th and 17th century, but most areas of Oceania were not colonized until after the voyages of James Cook in the 1780s.

Literate Culture and Arts

Main articles: History of literature, History of art, and History of music

Within Eurasia, there were four major civilization groups that had literate cultures and created literature and arts. These include Europe, The Middle East, South Asia and East Asia. Southeast Asia could be a possible fifth category but was influenced heavily from both South and East Asia literal cultures. All four cultures in Post-Classical Times used poetry, drama and prose. Throughout the period and until the 19th century poetry was the dominant form of literary expression. In the Middle East, South Asia, Europe and China great poetic works often used figurative language. Examples include, the Sanskrit Shakuntala, the Arabic Thousand and one nights, Old English Beowulf and works by the Chinese Du Fu In Japan, prose thrived during the period compared to other areas. The Tale of Genji is considered the world's first realistic novel written in the 9th century.[39]

Musically, most regions of the world only used

microtone. East-Asian music shared some similarities with European Music for using a pentatnotic scale
.

Circumpolar region

Though not reveled explicit in the written record, historians and archaeologists have theorized since the mid 20th century that the polar regions on different continents were connected to each other through trade and travel, and thus before 1500 was a separate world unto itself . Physical proof for the polar hypothesis has rested almost entirely on archaeological records. This is specifically case with understanding the movements of ancestral Inuit peoples during the period. While the exact details remain in dispute, there is consensus among some experts that during the 13th century Inuit peoples in Eastern Siberia deliberately migrated to Northwestern Canada in search for metal, likely because the rise of the Mongol Empire in East Asia had disrupted their earlier suppliers. Upon reaching their destination, there is a possibility that Inuits engaged in trade with Norse around Baffin island in order to secure metal alloy used for war and subsistence.


Plague and Disease

Old Testament Plague of boils in the Toggenburg Bible, 14th century. Bubonic PLagues deeply affected the life outlook of survivors and the socio-economic consequences of outbreaks were numerous.

In the Eurasian World, disease was an inescapable part of daily life, Europe in particular suffered minor outbreaks of disease every decade during the period. Using both land and sea routes devastating pandemics could spread far beyond their initial focal point.[41] Tracking the origin of massive Bubonic plagues and their potential spread between Eastern and Western Eurasia has been academically contentious.[42] Besides Bubonic Plauge, other diseases including Smallpox also spread across cultural regions.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page). Yet, the origin of the 541-549 epidemic remains uncertain, some historians postulate East Africa as a possible point for the plague's origin.[43]

There is no record of a disease with the characteristics of Yersinia pestis outbreaking in China before its appearance in

Egypt. The plague spread to Europe and Western Asia with a possible spread into East Asia.[A] Recurrent outbreaks persisted for two centuries.}Established urban civilizations were massively depopulated, the economies and social fabric of established empires were severely destabilized.[45] Rural societies while still facing horrific death tolls saw less socio-economic affects. .[46] In addition, no evidence of a Bubonic Plague occurring in India before 1600 has been found.[47] Rural societies while still facing horrific death tolls saw less socio-economic affects. Notably, the first recorded epidemics in Korea and Japan were recorded in 698 but the type of illness this was is unknown. Regardless it is likey that the trauma of disease (and other natural disasters) were a strong factor behind profound religious and political changes in Eurasia. Different authorities reacted to disease outbreaks with strategies that they believed would best protect their power. The Catholic Church in France spoke of healing miracles; Confucian bureaucrats asserted sudden deaths of Chinese emperors represented the loss of a dynasty's Mandate of Heaven shifting blame away from themselves. The severe loss of man power in Byzantium and Sasanian Empire was a contributing factor that favored Early Muslim conquests in the region.[48] In the long-term overland trade in Eurasia increased in favor of coastal Indian Ocean trade Recurrent aftershocks of the Plague of Justinian took place until around 750, after which many nations saw an economic recovery.[49]

Second plague pandemic until 1500

Six centuries later a relative but not a direct descendant of Yersinia Pestis rose to afflict Eurasia-

The Black Death, the first instance of the Second plague pandemic took place between 1347 and 1351 killing anywhere between 25% and 50% of preexisting populations.[50] Traditionally many historians believed the Black Death started in China and then spread due to Mongol Invasions westward who inadvertently carried infected fleas and rats with them.[51]7 Although there is no concrete historical evidence to this theory, the plague is considered endemic on the steppe[52] Currently there is extensive histography of the Black Death's effects on Europe and the Islamic World, but beyond Western Eurasia direct evidence for Black Death's presence is lacking.[53][54] On the Deccan Plateau much of the Delhi Sultanate's army suddenly died of a sickness in 1334, because this occurred 15 years prior to Europe's Black Death its unlikely that this was an instance of bubonic plague. Meanwhile, Yuan dynasty (China) suffered from major epidemics in the mid-14th century, including a recorded 90% death rate in Hebei Province.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).7.It is possible that these outbreaks were not the Black death but instead diseases already common to East Asia at the time including Typhus, Smallpox Dysentery.China proper and Crimea through sparsely populated Central Asia.[55]
Compared to Western Reactions to the black death, Chinese records that do mention the epidemics are relatively muted indicating that epidemics were a routine occurance.</ref> Besides Bubonic Plauge, other diseases including Smallpox also spread across cultural regions.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).

The aftershocks of the plague would hit populations well into the Early modern period, in Western Europe, the devastating loss of people created lasting changes. Wage labor began to rise in Western Europe and an emphasis on labor-saving machines and mechanisms was introduced. Slavery- which had almost vanished from Medieval Europe returned and was one of the causes of early Portuguese exploration after 1400. The adoption of Arabic Numerals may have been partially caused by the plague.[56]Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).

Picture idea

File:琴棋書画図-The Four Elegant Accomplishments (Kin ki sho ga) MET DP151593.jpg

File:Confucius Laozi Buddha.jpg

File:Seated Buddha Asian Art Museum SF B60P139+ detail.JPG

File:Chinese-Imperial-Crown (12 cords).png

Buddhist Triad, Amitabha Buddha with Two Boddhisattvas, probably Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta, Korea, Choson dynasty, mid 1400s, gilt silver - Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard University - DSC00882.jpg

Imperiestro-Ŭan-Li.jpg

  1. ^ Sutton, David. "ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE TILLETT SITE: THE FIRST FISHING COMMUNITY AT WANCHESE, ROANOKE ISLAND". http://www.ncgenweb.us. Carolina Algonkian Project. Retrieved 7 March 2018. {{cite web}}: External link in |website= (help)
  2. ^ "Carolina - The Native Americans - The [[Machapunga|Machapunga Indians]]". www.carolana.com. Retrieved 2018-03-10. {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  3. ^ "Algonquian Indians of North Carolina, Inc". ncalgonquians.com. Retrieved 2018-03-10.
  4. ^ "Carolana vs. Carolina". www.carolana.com. Retrieved 2018-03-10.
  5. ^ "Currituck County, NC - 1730 to 1790". www.carolana.com. Retrieved 2018-03-09.
  6. ^ "Hoi Toiders | NCpedia". www.ncpedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-10.
  7. ^ "The Royal Colony of North Carolina - Internal Roads as of 1775". www.carolana.com. Retrieved 2018-03-10.
  8. ^ "The American Revolution in North Carolina - Roanoke Inlet". www.carolana.com. Retrieved 2018-03-09.
  9. ^ "The American Revolution in North Carolina - The Known Battles and Skirmishes". www.carolana.com. Retrieved 2018-03-09.
  10. ^ "North Carolina - The War of 1812". www.carolana.com. Retrieved 2018-03-09.
  11. ^ "Dare County, NC - 1870". www.carolana.com. Retrieved 2018-03-13.
  12. ^ "Manteo, North Carolina". www.carolana.com. Retrieved 2018-03-13.
  13. ^ "Dare County, NC - 1911 to 1920". www.carolana.com. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
  14. ^ webmaster. "NCDOT: About the Ferry Division". www.ncdot.gov. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
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  24. ^ "Old trees reveal Late Antique Little Ice Age (LALIA) around 1,500 years ago". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 2018-06-28.
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  26. ^ Hatch, Dr Robert A. "Outline - Post-Classical Science - History of Science Study Guide - Dr Robert A. Hatch". users.clas.ufl.edu. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
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