Dome of the Rock

Coordinates: 31°46′41″N 35°14′07″E / 31.7780°N 35.2354°E / 31.7780; 35.2354
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Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Dome of the Rock
Qubbat aṣ-Ṣakhra
قبّة الصخرة
Dome of the Rock
The Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount (Al-Aqsa) in the Old City of Jerusalem
Religion
AffiliationIslam
Location
LocationJerusalem
Dome of the Rock is located in Jerusalem
Dome of the Rock
Location within the Old City of Jerusalem
AdministrationMinistry of Awqaf (Jordan)
Geographic coordinates31°46′41″N 35°14′07″E / 31.7780°N 35.2354°E / 31.7780; 35.2354
Architecture
TypeShrine
StyleUmayyad (with later Ottoman decoration)
Date establishedc. 685–692[a]
Dome(s)1

The Dome of the Rock (

Old City of Jerusalem. It is the world's oldest surviving work of Islamic architecture, the earliest archaeologically attested religious structure to be built by a Muslim ruler and its inscriptions contain the earliest epigraphic proclamations of Islam and of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[1][2]

Its initial construction was undertaken by the Umayyad Caliphate on the orders of Abd al-Malik during the Second Fitna in 691–692 CE, and it has since been situated on top of the site of the Second Jewish Temple (built in c. 516 BCE to replace the destroyed Solomon's Temple and rebuilt by Herod the Great), which was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE. The original dome collapsed in 1015 and was rebuilt in 1022–23.

Its architecture and mosaics were patterned after nearby

Iznik-style tiles were applied to the exterior,[4][5] and again in the modern period, notably with the addition of the gold-plated roof, in 1959–61 and again in 1993. The octagonal plan of the structure may have been influenced by the Byzantine-era Church of the Seat of Mary (also known as Kathisma in Greek and al-Qadismu in Arabic), which was built between 451 and 458 on the road between Jerusalem and Bethlehem.[3]

The

Night Journey of Muhammad began from the rock at the centre of the structure.[7][8]

Designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, it has been called "Jerusalem's most recognizable landmark"[9] along with two nearby Old City structures: the Western Wall and the "Resurrection Rotunda" in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[10] Its Islamic inscriptions proved to be a milestone, as afterward they became a common feature in Islamic structures and almost always mention Muhammad.[1] The Dome of the Rock remains a "unique monument of Islamic culture in almost all respects", including as a "work of art and as a cultural and pious document", according to art historian Oleg Grabar.[11]

Architecture

Basic structure

Cross section of the Dome (print from 1887, after the first detailed drawings of the Dome, made by the English artist Frederick Catherwood in 1833).[12]

The Dome of the Rock's basic plan is essentially octagonal. It is capped at its centre by a dome, approximately 20 m (66 ft) in diameter, mounted on an elevated circular

drum standing on 16 supports (4 tiers and 12 columns).[13] Surrounding this circle is an octagonal arcade of 24 piers and columns.[14]
The inner circular row of drum supports and the octagonal arcade create an inner ambulatorium that encircles the holy rock.

The outer walls are also octagonal. They each measure approximately 18 m (60 ft) wide and 11 m (36 ft) high.[13] The inner and outer octagon create a second, outer ambulatorium surrounding the inner one.

Both the circular drum and the exterior walls contain many windows.[13]

Interior decoration

The interior of the dome is lavishly decorated with

today's standard text (mainly changes from the first to the third person) and are mixed with pious inscriptions not in the Quran.[15]

The dedicatory inscription in Kufic script placed around the dome contains the date believed to be the year the Dome was first completed, AH 72 (691/2 CE), while the name of the corresponding caliph and builder of the Dome, al-Malik, was deleted and replaced by the name of Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833) during whose reign renovations took place.

Exterior decoration

The decoration of the outer walls went through two major phases: the initial Umayyad scheme comprised marble and mosaics, much like the interior walls.

Iznik tiles that were produced for the Ottoman capital.[4] A small number of tiles were actual Iznik productions that were imported to Jerusalem.[17] The original tiles were replaced in the 1960s with faithful copies produced in Italy.[16]

Al-Isra
, which tells the story of the Isra or Night Journey, is inscribed above this.

History

Pre-Islamic background

Main articles:
Herod's Temple, and Aelia Capitolina
Herod's Temple as seen from the east (Holyland Model of Jerusalem
, 1966)

The Dome of the Rock is situated in the center of the Temple Mount, the site of Solomon's Temple and the Second Jewish Temple, which had been greatly expanded under Herod the Great in the 1st century BCE. Herod's Temple was destroyed in 70 CE by the Romans, and after the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, a Roman temple to Jupiter Capitolinus was built at the site by Emperor Hadrian.[19]

Jerusalem was ruled by the Byzantine Empire throughout the 4th to 6th centuries. During this time, Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem began to develop.[20] The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built under Constantine in the 320s, but the Temple Mount was left undeveloped after a failed project of restoration of the Jewish Temple under Emperor Julian.[21]

In 638 CE, Byzantine Jerusalem was conquered by the Arab armies of

Umar ibn al-Khattab,[22] second Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate. Umar was advised by Ka'b al-Ahbar, a Jewish rabbi who converted to Islam,[23] that the site is identical with the site of the former Jewish Temples in Jerusalem.[24] Among the first Muslims, Jerusalem was referred to as Madinat bayt al-Maqdis ('City of the Temple').[25]

Umayyads

Original construction

The initial octagonal structure of the Dome of the Rock and its round wooden dome had basically the same shape as it does today.

Muawiyah I (r. 661–680),[31] or indeed a Byzantine building dating to before the Muslim conquest, built under Heraclius (r. 610–641).[32]

The Dome of the Rock's architecture and mosaics were patterned after nearby Byzantine churches and palaces.

Sa'id al-Khayr.[33] The Caliph employed expert works from across his domain, at the time restricted to Syria and Egypt,[33] who were presumably Christians.[34] Construction cost was reportedly seven times the yearly tax income of Egypt.[35] The historian K. A. C. Creswell noted that those who built the shrine used the measurements of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre
. The diameter of the dome of the shrine is 20.20 m (66.3 ft) and its height 20.48 m (67.2 ft), while the diameter of the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is 20.90 m (68.6 ft) and its height 21.05 m (69.1 ft).

Motivations for construction

Narratives by the medieval sources about Abd al-Malik's motivations in building the Dome of the Rock vary.

Abrahamic religious setting of Jerusalem, home of the two older Abrahamic faiths, Judaism and Christianity.[11][37] The historian Shelomo Dov Goitein has argued that the Dome of the Rock was intended to compete with the many fine buildings of worship of other religions: "The very form of a rotunda, given to the Qubbat as-Sakhra, although it was foreign to Islam, was destined to rival the many Christian domes"[38] - and more specifically, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, according to others.[39]

The other main explanation holds that Abd al-Malik, in the heat of the war with Ibn al-Zubayr, sought to build the structure to divert the focus of the Muslims in his realm from the Ka'aba in Mecca, where Ibn al-Zubayr would publicly condemn the Umayyads during the annual pilgrimage to the sanctuary.[11][36][37] Though most modern historians dismiss the latter account as a product of anti-Umayyad propaganda in the traditional Muslim sources and doubt that Abd al-Malik would attempt to alter the sacred Muslim requirement of fulfilling the pilgrimage to the Ka'aba, other historians concede that this cannot be conclusively dismissed.[11][36][37]

Abbasids and Fatimids

The building was severely damaged by earthquakes in 808 and again in 846.

earthquake of 1033 resulted in the introduction of wooden beams to enforce the dome.[42]

Crusaders

Main article: Templum Domini
Depiction of the Templum Domini on the reverse side of the seal of the Knights Templar

For centuries Christian pilgrims were able to come and experience the Temple Mount, but escalating violence against pilgrims to Jerusalem (

seals of the Order's Grand Masters (such as Everard des Barres and Renaud de Vichiers), and soon became the architectural model for round Templar churches across Europe.[44]

Ayyubids and Mamluks

Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin on 2 October 1187, and the Dome of the Rock was reconsecrated as a Muslim shrine. The cross on top of the dome was replaced by a crescent, and a wooden screen was placed around the rock below. Saladin's nephew al-Malik al-Mu'azzam Isa carried out other restorations within the building, and added the porch to the Jami'a Al-Aqsa.

The Dome of the Rock was the focus of extensive royal patronage by the sultans during the Mamluk period, which lasted from 1260 until 1516.

Ottoman period (1517–1917)

During the

Ottoman-style tiles, which replaced the old Umayyad mosaics.[5] This was likely part of an effort to impose a visibly Ottoman mark on this major Islamic holy site.[47] Inscriptions on the tiles provide the dates 952 AH (1545–6 CE) and 959 AH (1552 CE), but work continued until the end of Suleiman's reign, if not later.[5] Documents show repairs were still incomplete by the time of Murad III (r. 1574–1595) and the latter can probably be credited with finishing this work, which included repairs to the lead of the dome.[48]

The tiles seem to have been fabricated locally rather than at centers like Iznik (famous for its production of Iznik pottery at this time), although there does not appear to have been a sophisticated ceramic production center in the region.[5] Robert Hillenbrand remarks that the workshops that produced the tiles must have been dedicated to this project alone, because there is no evidence that similar tilework was produced for other monuments in Jerusalem during this period.[4] The name of one of the craftsmen is recorded in an inscription as Abdallah of Tabriz.[5] This may indicate that the tiles were commissioned from a workshop of Iranian craftsmen from Tabriz who are thought to have produced many earlier Ottoman tiles.[49][50]

The Dome of the Chain, a free-standing structure next to the Dome of the Rock, was also renovated as part of Suleiman's project, in 1561–2.[51] Also nearby, the Ottomans built the Dome of the Prophet in its current form sometime in the 16th or 17th century.[52][53]

Further restorations to the building are recorded in 1720–1721, 1742,1754, 1780, 1817–1818, and 1853.

Sultan Abdülaziz, all the tiles on the west and southwest walls of the octagonal part of the building were removed and replaced by copies that had been made in Turkey.[55][56]

  • The first-ever photograph of the building, 1842–1844
    The first-ever photograph of the building, 1842–1844
  • View from the north, Francis Bedford (1862)
    View from the north, Francis Bedford (1862)
  • West front in 1862. By this date many of the 16th century tiles were missing.
    West front in 1862. By this date many of the 16th century tiles were missing.
  • Interior showing mosaic decoration (1914)
    Interior showing mosaic decoration (1914)
  • Tiled façade (2013)
    Tiled façade (2013)
  • Interior showing rock (1915)
    Interior showing rock (1915)

British Mandate

1920s photograph

Jami Al-Aqsa
in Jerusalem.

Parts of the Dome of the Rock collapsed during the 11 July 1927 earthquake, and the walls were left badly cracked,[57] damaging many of the repairs that had taken place over previous years.[citation needed]

Jordanian rule

In 1955, an extensive program of renovation was begun by the government of Jordan, with funds supplied by Arab governments and Turkey. The work included replacement of large numbers of tiles dating back to the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, which had become dislodged by heavy rain. In 1965, as part of this restoration, the dome was covered with a durable aluminium bronze alloy made in Italy that replaced the lead exterior. Before 1959, the dome was covered in blackened lead. In the course of substantial restoration carried out from 1959 to 1962, the lead was replaced by aluminum-bronze plates covered with gold leaf.

Israeli rule

The Dome of the Rock in 2018

A few hours after the

Israeli flag was hoisted over the Dome of the Rock in 1967 during the Six-Day War, Israelis lowered it on the orders of Moshe Dayan and invested the Muslim waqf (religious trust) with the authority to manage the Temple Mount in order to "keep the peace".[58]

In 1993, the golden dome covering was refurbished following a donation of US$8.25 million by King Hussein of Jordan, who sold one of his houses in London to fund the 80 kilograms (180 lb) of gold required.[59]

Accessibility

Sign at visitors entrance to Temple Mount

The Dome is maintained by the Ministry of

Awqaf in Amman, Jordan.[60]

Until the mid-20th century, non-Muslims were not permitted in the area. Since 1967, non-Muslims have been permitted limited access; however non-Muslims are not permitted to pray on the Temple Mount, bring prayer books, or wear religious apparel. The Israeli police help enforce this.

Palestinians with Israeli citizenship
are permitted unrestricted access.

Some Orthodox rabbis encourage Jews to visit the site, while most forbid entry to the compound lest there be a violation of Jewish law. Even rabbis who encourage entrance to the Temple Mount prohibit entrance to the actual Dome of the Rock.[63]

Religious significance

The Temple in Jerusalem depicted as the Dome of the Rock on the printer's mark of Marco Antonio Giustiniani, Venice 1545–52

The location of the Dome of the Rock is believed by many Muslims to be the site mentioned in

Great Mosque of Mecca to the Masjid Al-Aqsa ("the farthest place of prayer") where he prayed, and then to visit heaven where he leads prayers and rises to heaven to receive instructions from Allah. Although the city of Jerusalem is not mentioned by any of its names in the Qur'an, it is mentioned in hadiths as the place of Muhammad's Night Journey.[64]

Judging though by the early Muslim sources, this does not seem to have been yet a fully formulated part of the beliefs shared by Muslims during the construction of the Dome in the 8th century, and the inscriptions inside the dome attributing the building to Caliph 'Abd al-Malik in the year 691/2 do not refer at all to the Night Journey, but contain only the Quranic view on the nature of the prophet Isa (Jesus) instead.[8] The inscription is in a mosaic frieze that includes an explicit rejection of the divinity of Christ:

33. "So peace is upon me the day I was born, and the day I die, and the day I shall be raised alive!" 34. Such is Jesus, son of Mary. It is a statement of truth, about which they doubt. 35. It is not befitting to (the majesty of) Allah that He should take himself a child. Glory be to Him! when He determines a matter, He only says to it, "Be", and it is.

— Quran, 19:33–35

According to Goitein, the inscriptions decorating the interior clearly display a spirit of polemic against Christianity, whilst stressing at the same time the Qur'anic doctrine that Jesus was a true prophet. The formula la sharika lahu ('God has no companion') is repeated five times; the verses from Sura

Maryam 19:35–37, which strongly reaffirm Jesus' prophethood to God, are quoted together with the prayer: Allahumma salli ala rasulika wa'abdika 'Isa bin Maryam – "O Lord, send your blessings to your Prophet and Servant Jesus son of Mary." He believes that this shows that rivalry with Christendom, together with the spirit of Muslim mission to the Christians, was at work at the time of construction.[38]

At the beginning of the 8th century,

Night Journey from Mecca to Jerusalem (isra'), he set off immediately and specifically from the Rock in his Ascension (mi'raj) to Heaven, where God instructed him in the doctrines of the new religion.[8]

Today, many Muslims believe the Dome serves for the commemoration of Muhammad's Ascension,[8] in accordance to the views shared by some Islamic scholars, that the Rock is indeed the spot[65] from which Muhammad ascended to Heaven accompanied by the angel Gabriel. Further, Muhammad was taken here by Gabriel to pray with Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.[66]

The Foundation Stone viewed from the dome. Photograph was taken between 1900 and 1920, before the removal of the surrounding iron grill.

Other Islamic scholars believe that Muhammad ascended to Heaven from the Masjid Al-Aqsa, of which the Dome of the Rock is a part.[67][68]

In traditional Jewish sources, it is believed to be the place from which the creation of the world began.[69] Moreover, many Jews believe the site to be where Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac. The Foundation Stone and its surroundings which lie at the center of the dome, are considered the holiest site in Judaism.[citation needed] Jews traditionally regard the location of the stone as the holiest spot on Earth, the site of the Holy of Holies of the First and the Second Temple.[citation needed]

Though Muslims now pray towards the

his migration from Mecca to Medina, when Allah directed him to instead turn towards the Kaaba in Mecca.[70]

The Jewish Home political party in the 2013 Israeli elections, caused a controversy when he was recorded telling a Fellowship Church evangelical group in Florida in 2011 to imagine the incredible experience that would follow were the Dome to be destroyed and the construction of the Third Temple begun. All evangelicals would immediately rush to go to Israel, he opined.[73]

Influence and depiction

Homages in art and architecture

Raphael, The Marriage of the Virgin

It was long believed that the Dome of the Rock echoed the architecture of the

Perugino's Marriage of the Virgin.[74]

For the same reason, the Dome of the Rock has inspired the architecture of a number of buildings. These include the 15th-century octagonal

New Synagogue in Berlin
, Germany.

On banknotes

The Dome of the Rock has been depicted on the obverse and reverse of several Middle Eastern currencies:

  • Reverse of a 1,000 Iranian rial banknote (1992).
    Reverse of a 1,000 Iranian rial banknote (1992).
  • Reverse of a 1 Jordanian dinar banknote (1959). Since 1992, the 20 dinar note bears the Dome's depiction.
    Reverse of a 1 Jordanian dinar banknote (1959). Since 1992, the 20 dinar note bears the Dome's depiction.
  • Obverse of a 50 Saudi riyal banknote (1983).
    Obverse of a 50 Saudi riyal banknote (1983).
  • Obverse of a 1 Palestinian pound banknote (1939).
    Obverse of a 1
    Palestinian pound
    banknote (1939).
Jami Al-Aqsa and the gold-roofed Dome of the Rock, from the Mount of Olives
  • Panorama of the Temple Mount, including Al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock, from the Mount of Olives
    Panorama of the
    Al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock, from the Mount of Olives
  • Aerial view
    Aerial view
  • General view with Old City from Mount of Olives
    General view with Old City from Mount of Olives
  • General view from SW
    General view from SW
  • Stereo card of the Dome of Rock (late 19th century)
    Stereo card
    of the Dome of Rock (late 19th century)
  • Dome of the rock, Samuel Hirszenberg, 1908 (Tel Aviv Museum of Art); with qas
    Dome of the rock, Samuel Hirszenberg, 1908 (Tel Aviv Museum of Art); with qas
  • View through Cotton Merchants' Gate
    View through Cotton Merchants' Gate
  • On a rainy day, with Dome of the Chain
    On a rainy day, with Dome of the Chain
  • Dome of the Chain: ceiling
    Dome of the Chain: ceiling
  • Dome of the Rock from Dome of the Chain
    Dome of the Rock from Dome of the Chain
  • Exterior from N
    Exterior from N
  • Exterior: northern door
    Exterior: northern door
  • Exterior from S
    Exterior from S
  • Exterior: detail southern facade, door, gilded dome
    Exterior: detail southern facade, door, gilded dome
  • Exterior: detail southern facade with door
    Exterior: detail southern facade with door
  • Exterior: gilded dome
    Exterior: gilded dome
  • Exterior: detail, Ottoman tiles
    Exterior: detail, Ottoman tiles
  • Exterior: detail, Ottoman tiles
    Exterior: detail, Ottoman tiles
  • Exterior: detail, Ottoman tiles
    Exterior: detail, Ottoman tiles
  • Exterior: window with tiled lattice
    Exterior: window with tiled lattice
  • Exterior: western entrance vault
    Exterior: western entrance vault
  • Foundation Stone
    Foundation Stone
  • Interior: inner colonnade, dome
    Interior: inner colonnade, dome
  • Interior: drum and dome
    Interior: drum and dome
  • Interior: detail decorated drum and dome
    Interior: detail decorated drum and dome
  • Interior: drum mosaic, vessel with floral motif
    Interior: drum mosaic, vessel with floral motif
  • Interior: detail of the dome
    Interior: detail of the dome

See also

Notes

  1. ^ See here.

References

Citations

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  2. ISBN 978-0-86356-673-8
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  12. Carl Friedrich Heinrich Werner
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  14. ^ The Dome of the Rock[usurped]. Glass Steel and Stone.
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  17. ^ Hillenbrand 2000, p. 31 (see plate XXIX caption).
  18. ^ Palestine: Masjid al-Aqsa:The Dome of the Rock Archived 15 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine, at IslamicLandmarks.com, accessed 18 February 2019
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  20. ^ Davidson, Linda Kay and David Martin Gitlitz Pilgrimage: From the Ganges to Graceland : an Encyclopedia Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, Inc, Santa Barbara, CA 2002, p. 274.
  21. ^ "Julian thought to rebuild at an extravagant expense the proud Temple once at Jerusalem, and committed this task to Alypius of Antioch. Alypius set vigorously to work, and was seconded by the governor of the province, when fearful balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations, continued their attacks, till the workmen, after repeated scorchings, could approach no more: and he gave up the attempt." Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.1.2–3.
  22. ISBN 9789652203489
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  24. ISSN 2159-0370
    . The encounter between Jews and Muslims on the Temple Mount/al-Aqsa began at the dawn of Islam and continues to this day. It began with a mixture of cooperation and competition; a Jewish convert to Islam, Ka'ab al-Ahbar, guided Caliph Umar to the site of the Temple.
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  28. ^ Necipoğlu 2008, p. 22.
  29. ^ Sheila Blair, "What Is The Date Of The Dome Of The Rock?" in J. Raby & J. Johns (ed.), "Bayt Al-Maqdis: 'Abd al-Malik's Jerusalem", 1992, Part 1, Oxford University Press: Oxford (UK), pp. 59-87.
  30. ^ Vogüé 1864, p. 85.
  31. ^ Oleg Grabar: The Meaning of the Dome of the Rock.
  32. JSTOR 27931418
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  33. ^ a b c Gil 1997, p. 92.
  34. ^
    ISBN 978-0-300-08869-4
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  36. ^ a b c Johns 2003, pp. 425–426.
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    JSTOR 595539
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  39. ISBN 978-1-4739-7168-4
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  46. ^ Grabar 2006, p. 191.
  47. ^ Hillenbrand 2000, pp. 2, 8.
  48. ^ Goodwin 1971, p. 291, 485 (see note 18).
  49. ^ Carswell 2006, p. 73.
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Works cited

Further reading

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