William C. Cramer
William C. Cramer | |
---|---|
County attorney for Pinellas County | |
In office 1953–1954 | |
Personal details | |
Born | William Cato Cramer August 4, 1922 Denver, Colorado, U.S. |
Died | October 18, 2003 South Pasadena, Florida, U.S. | (aged 81)
Resting place | Woodlawn Memory Gardens in St. Petersburg, Florida |
Political party | Republican (1949-2003) Democratic (before 1949) |
Spouse(s) | (1) Alice J. Cramer (divorced) (2) Sarah Ellen Bromelow Cramer (married ca. 1992–2003, his death) |
Children | 3 |
Residence(s) | St. Petersburg, Florida |
Alma mater | St. Petersburg Junior College
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill |
Profession | Attorney |
William Cato Cramer Sr. (August 4, 1922 – October 18, 2003), was an American attorney and politician, elected in 1954 as a member of the
In Congress, Cramer became a ranking member of the Roads subcommittee of the Committee on Public Works, and influenced national highway policy at a time of major expansion, ensuring that Interstates were kept toll-free. He gained extra funding to link Tampa and Miami, in a federal interstate project built in Florida.[1]
He was instrumental in the revival of the Republican Party in Florida through the mid-20th century, taking advantage of the state's changing demographics and new Republican migrants from the Northern United States and the Midwestern United States, and attracting Cuban Americans and other minorities to the party.[2] Beginning in 1964, Cramer represented the state for 20 years on the Republican National Committee and served as its counsel for six years.[2]
The long absence of Republican officials from state office and weakened condition of the party were due to suppression of black and Republican voting in the 19th century, and the
Background
Cramer was born in
In 1943, Cramer enlisted in the
As part of getting established, Cramer married Alice of Dothan, Alabama. They had three children together before divorcing decades later.
In 1949, Cramer switched his partisan affiliation from
Florida political divisions
Florida had an uneven population distribution and unusual shape. Democratic
In the 1940s and 1950s, new Republicans settled in the state, mostly white migrants, often retirees, from the
The migration of such business executives and senior citizens began to change the partisan profile of the Pinellas County area, and other popular destinations, such as Miami on the Atlantic coast. In 1928, Republican presidential nominee
Shifts in the larger state were reflected in presidential voting in 1952 and 1956, when the ticket of Eisenhower-Nixon carried the state. In 1960, 1968, and 1972, Nixon prevailed in Florida as the presidential nominee, attracting votes from many who still voted Democratic for local and state positions. Following passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which provided for federal enforcement of rights, African Americans were able to register and vote again.and did so in increasing numbers. They generally affiliated with the national Democratic Party. Texan Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson won the state in 1964, as did Jimmy Carter of neighboring Georgia in 1976. Carter also gained votes as a Southern favorite son, and attracted blue-collar and historically Democratic voters, and African Americans.[8]
State legislative service
In 1950, Cramer ran for the
When Cramer's two Republican legislative colleagues in 1951 named him minority leader, the Democrats teased them for "caucusing in a phone booth."[9] Because the Florida legislature operates under the rules of the United States House of Representatives, Cramer was able to assert political "minority rights;" he raised his personal and the party visibility in state politics. In the state House, Cramer defended junior colleges from challenges waged by the four-year institutions. Having attended a two-year institution, Cramer considered junior colleges essential to lower-cost educational opportunities for state residents. Cramer worked to establish the state's first anti-crime commission, but the Democrats refused to name any Republicans to the panel.[9]
Run for Congress
In 1952, Cramer ran for a seat in the U.S. House against
In 1954, with a stronger organization, Cramer ran again and unseated Campbell by the same 0.7 percent margin by which he had lost in 1952.[10] Cramer found that the $40,000 he spent in 1954 was insufficient for advertising in the still new medium of television, but the state party had contributed several thousand dollars to his campaign.[11]
Tenure
U.S. Representative
Cramer represented
Civil rights
Cramer had a mixed record on civil rights during his time in congress. In 1957, Cramer joined four other southern Republican House colleagues, including
In time, Cramer became the
Cramer was also vice chairman of the
Republican National Committee
In 1964, after nine years in the House, Cramer was elected to the
Cramer was a delegate or alternate delegate to each Republican National Convention from 1952 to 1984. As a 20-year RNC member, he also served as the committee's general counsel for six years.[5]
Edward Gurney was a transplanted New Englander who settled in Winter Park. He was elected as a Republican to the U.S. House in 1962. He initially joined Cramer and the insurgents during the primaries but then withdrew his backing. The Brown regular forces narrowly won the primary in 1964. Cramer said that the insurgents might have won if Goldwater had continued to back them.[23]
Dispute with Kirk
In Florida, 1964 was the year when a Republican candidate for U.S. Senator polled 36.1% in the general election, another sign of changing politics. It was a strong showing for relative newcomer
In 1966, Kirk returned for another campaign and scored a huge upset to become
Cramer said that he urged Kirk to merge his gubernatorial campaign in Pinellas County with the regular Republican party organization. But, Kirk organized a separate entity in order to maximize crossover support from Democrats unhappy with the nomination of Mayor High. Cramer recalled this disagreement over strategy as the "first indication that Kirk intended to do his own thing and attempt to form his own organization within the Republican Party in Florida. I didn't get the signal at the time, but it became very obvious later, particularly when he attempted to defeat me as national committeeman in 1968."[25]
Despite Cramer's aid, Kirk overlooked him when planning his inauguration. He asked U.S. Representative Edward Gurney to serve as chairman of the inauguration, although Gurney had played no role in Kirk's campaign. In 1968, Governor Kirk dispatched his staff to the Republican state convention in Orlando to push for Cramer's ouster as national committeeman. As governor, he believed he was leader of the party and wanted his own man representing the state to the national committee.[26] Cramer said, "I was about the only person at the time who stood in his way from taking total control."[26]
Cramer believed he had earned the loyalty of the state's organizational Republicans: "I had proved myself an effective congressman. I was on the House leadership as vice chairman of the Republican Conference and was ranking member on the House Public Works Committee."[27]
1968 Senate election
In 1968 three-term US Representative Edward Gurney sought the Florida U.S. Senate seat vacated by the retirement of Democrat George Smathers. Former Governor LeRoy Collins, an ally of retiring President Lyndon B. Johnson, was the Democratic nominee. Cramer and Gurney were prospective primary opponents until Cramer yielded to Gurney. They based this on an understanding that Gurney would thereafter back Cramer for the other Senate seat, which was expected to be vacated by Spessard Holland in 1970. According to Cramer, Gurney "pledged his support to me, and I did to him, and we shook hands."[28]
Cramer's former law partner Herman Goldner, former mayor of Saint Petersburg, opposed Gurney in the primary but received few votes. Gurney defeated Democrat Collins for the US Senate in the general election, having carried all but four counties. Gurney and Cramer crisscrossed the state to work on building the Republican Party.
Cramer and Gurney had worked well as colleagues but were not friends. Kirk named Gurney's Orlando law firm as the counsel for the Florida Turnpike Authority, at a $100,000 annual retainer. Cramer's law firm received no state business.[29]
1970 Senate election
In the fall of 1969, Cramer declared his candidacy for the Senate; Holland announced his retirement as expected. President Nixon encouraged Cramer's candidacy in 1970: "Bill, the Senate needs you, the country needs you, the people need you–now run."[28]
In April 1970 the Senate rejected Judge
Expecting to benefit over the uproar in Florida over the rejection of Judge Carswell, political aides suggested that Carswell resign from the bench and run for Holland's Senate seat. Gurney claimed that he was unaware that Cramer had considered running for the Senate in 1968 and had deferred to Gurney, with the expectation that Cramer would run for the other Senate seat in 1970.[31] Governor Kirk and Gurney endorsed Carswell, and Lieutenant Governor Ray C. Osborne, a Kirk ally from St. Petersburg, abandoned his own challenge to Cramer. Years later, Kirk said that he "should have stuck with Osborne," and not encouraged Carswell to run. Kirk said that he had not "created" Carswell's candidacy, as often depicted by the media.[32] Carswell said that he had no knowledge of a "gentlemen's agreement" between Gurney and Cramer and that he had considered running for the Senate even before he was nominated to the Supreme Court.[31] In 1970 Carswell said that his failure to be confirmed to the Court was because of the "dark evil winds of liberalism" and the "northern press and its knee-jerking followers in the Senate."[33]
President Nixon did not voice support for either candidate during the Carswell-Cramer primary contest. Deputy Press Secretary
Cramer gave up his House seat to run for the Senate. His former district assistant Charles William "Bill" Young of St. Petersburg, then the Florida Senate minority leader, ran to succeed Cramer and won. Young was continuously re-elected to the seat until his death on October 18, 2013. At the time of his death, Young was the longest-serving Republican member of Congress.[36] The congressional district, whose number varied over the years, remained Republican until the 2016 election.
In the primary campaign, Cramer stressed his amendment to the
A reporter from the Miami Herald compared Carswell's speeches to "legal opinions" aimed more at Senators
Like Cramer, Kirk was identified with anti-busing forces. He had been unable, in 1970, to halt a desegregation plan in Manatee County.[39] At a time of cultural change and social unrest, Cramer went beyond the busing issue in his speeches to attack "cop killers, bombers, burners, and racial revolutionaries who would destroy America."[40]
Cramer said that he had had a friendly acquaintance with Carswell prior to the 1970 campaign, but he later viewed the jurist as "a pawn" of kingmakers Kirk and Gurney. Cramer attributed his Senate nomination to his grassroots support and Carswell's lack of campaign experience. Carswell, however, claimed that his support among Democrats would have been considerable had Florida, like
In the Republican primary held on September 8, 1970, Cramer polled 220,553 votes to Carswell's 121,281. A third candidate, businessman George Balmer, received 10,974 votes.
Florida gubernatorial election
The Republican Party primary for the governorship had a challenge to incumbent governor Kirk waged by Jack Eckerd. A Pennsylvania native and businessman, Eckerd had relocated to Florida after World War II where he operated and expanded a large chain of drugstores. Eckerd warned that the renomination of Kirk would produce a Republican fiasco in the fall campaign. In a primary endorsement, the Miami Herald depicted Eckerd as "an efficient campaigner with the ability to bring people together constructively ... [Eckerd has] a common touch, dedication to high principle, and organizing genius."[44] Though he voted in the primary for Eckerd, Cramer took no public position.
Also in the gubernatorial Republican primary race was state senator
Cramer said that he "customarily" avoided involvement in primaries outside of his own race, but Kirk claimed that Cramer assisted Eckerd and strongly criticized the governor.[47]
Divided party
Though Carswell and Eckerd endorsed Cramer and Kirk, they were not active in the fall campaign. Unlike the Republicans, Democratic State Senators
Askew ran for governor and Chiles for US Senator. "Askew and Chiles form a logical team. Kirk and Cramer don't," said the Miami Herald, noting the "uneasy alliance" between the Republican nominees.[49] In its endorsement of the Democrats, the Miami Herald said that Askew had "captured the imagination of a state that plainly deserves new leadership."
Kirk ridiculed his opponent Askew as "a momma's boy who wouldn't have the courage to stand up under the fire of the legislators" and a "nice sweet-looking fellow chosen by liberals ... to front for them."[50] Such rhetoric helped to reinvigorate the Democratic coalition.[51]
Cramer v. Chiles
In the general election campaign for the US Senate seat, Cramer questioned Democrat Lawton Chiles' votes in the state senate on several matters regarding insurance. One law increased automobile liability rates by 50 percent over two years, and another raised premiums for school bus insurance, at a time that Chiles' insurance agency in Lakeland held the policy on the Polk County School Board. Such "conflict-of-interest" issues seemed to have little political effect.[52] The "self-made" Cramer depicted Chiles as coming from a "silver spoon" background (his net worth was $300,000, which adjusted to inflation would’ve made Chiles a millionaire in 2020[53]), but the media did not address questions about the candidates' personal wealth.[54]
Reporters focused on "Walkin' Lawton"'s 92-day, 1,000-mile trek from the Florida panhandle to Key Largo. Before the walk, termed a "public relations stroke of genius," Chiles had name recognition by only 5 percent of voters; afterward, he had gained widespread and often uncritical recognition.[55] The Tallahassee Democrat forecast correctly that Chiles's "weary feet and comfortable hiking boots" would carry the 40-year-old "slow-country country lawyer" with "back-country common sense and methodical urbane political savvy" to victory over his opponent Bill Cramer.[56]
Cramer could not match Chiles' public appeal. A Cramer aide said it was difficult "selling experience. It's not a sexy thing."[57] With "shoe leather and a shoestring budget," Chiles presented himself as a "problem solver who doesn't automatically vote 'No' on every issue."[58]
Cramer later said that he should have demanded more debates and rebuffed the walking tactic:
I never could get that turned around. He was walking, and I was running. But the press was enamored with the walk ... Every time he was asked a question about where he stood, he would quote somebody that he met on the campaign trail to state what he was to do when he got to the Senate consistent with what that constituent had said. The basic approach gave him more credibility to his walk, which had nothing to do with his qualifications for the Senate but gave him free publicity and appealed to the 'little man.'[59]
With the
The issue of protecting the environment continued to attract more support in Florida. By 1974, a survey showed Floridians favored limits on development, and 60 percent urged more government funding for
In the 1970 Republican primary, all major papers in Florida except the pro-Carswell Tallahassee Democrat had supported Cramer's nomination, but in the general election against Chiles, Cramer was supported by only three publications—in Orlando, Fort Myers, and Pasco County.[62] Cramer failed to pin the "liberal" label on Chiles.[63] The New York Times observed that Chiles and Askew "convey amiable good ol' boy qualities with moderate-to-liberal aspirations that do not strike fear into the hearts of conservatives."[64]
Chiles was also supported by the retiring Democratic Senator
During the late 1960s, a period of protests against the Vietnam War and other social unrest, Cramer had introduced an anti-riot measure as an addition to the Civil Rights Act of 1968. It made police assault a federal crime and federalized as conspiracy those rioters who crossed state lines to commit riots. This passed the House by 389-25. The law was lauded at Cramer rallies by Vice President Agnew and United States Attorney General John N. Mitchell. Five of the 1968 Chicago Seven defendants were prosecuted under this law (all were acquitted), as was professor and activist Angela Davis in a separate arrest and trial in 1970.[67]
Cramer said achieving a Republican-majority Senate could result in the removal of controversial Democratic Senator
Nixon campaigning in Florida
In his presidential papers, Nixon, who campaigned for Cramer in Miami Beach, Palm Beach, St. Petersburg, and Tallahassee, cited the congressman's sponsorship of "significant legislation to stop bombing and riots" and his record on the environment, senior citizens, and education.[69]
Nixon claimed that more Republicans were needed in Congress to bring an "honorable end" to the Vietnam War, to maintain America's international presence, and to halt "permissiveness, pornography, and busing." The Democratic congressional majorities, reaffirmed after the 1970 elections, soon prompted Nixon to claim an "ideological majority", or a bipartisan coalition of conservatives and moderates to pass his programs.[70] Critical of dissenting youth, Nixon reminded the "silent majority" in St. Petersburg that "the impossible dream in most countries is possible in America."[71]
Making the first presidential appearance in Tallahassee since
Despite the Nixon-Agnew "road show," polls showed Chiles and Askew with pre-election leads larger than three-to-two. Cramer insisted that the polls reflected only the views of the media.
1970 election results
Cramer polled 772,817 votes (46.1 percent), gaining crossover votes of 61,716 more ballots than the number of registered Republicans in Florida. Chiles' 902,438 tabulation (53.9 percent) was less than half of registered Democrats, but he gained majorities in 55 counties, compared to 13 counties tilting to Cramer.[76] Most of the Democratic electorate sat out what political analysts thought was one of the most contested Senate general elections in Florida history. Robert Sikes speculated that some primary supporters of Farris Bryant may have defected to Cramer, and a number of Republicans may have sat out the election, too.[77]
Democrat Askew won all but nine counties to defeat Kirk for the governorship, 984,305 to 746,243. Cramer polled 26,574 more votes than Kirk and carried five counties which Kirk lost: Broward, Collier, Martin, Pasco, and Pinellas. Cramer had 11,000 more votes than Chiles in Pinellas County, when Republicans outnumbered registered Democrats there by more than 3,000. Kirk and Cramer each won seven counties, Indian River, Lake, Manatee, Orange, Osceola, Sarasota, and Seminole. Kirk took two counties lost by Cramer, Clay and St. Johns.[76]
Cramer, Edward Gurney, and Kirk differ on the reasons for their party's 1970 debacle. As a factor in his loss, Cramer cited his reliance on an out-of-state public relations firm not well versed in Florida politics. He has said that the $350,000 spending limit then in effect for elections did not permit sufficient television advertising. Cramer believed very much that the intraparty schism hurt his campaign.
But, in 1970 the GOP fared poorly across the South. The exception was
Gurney blamed the 1970 defeat in Florida on the inability of the Republican nominees to attract cross-over Democratic support. Kirk said no Republican could have won statewide that year because Askew and Chiles had commanded the majority coalition in the state. The Democrats found that "fresh faces and new looks outweighed age and experience." They gained extensive support from working-class whites, blacks (who were voting in higher numbers),
Later years
Two months after the general election, tensions between Cramer and Gurney resumed. L. E. "Tommy" Thomas, an automobile dealer from Panama City who was supported by Cramer, gained the Florida state Republican chairmanship, defeating the Gurney-endorsed Duke Crittenden of Orlando. Three congressmen friendly with Cramer, J. Herbert Burke of Hollywood, Louis Frey of Orlando, and Bill Young of St. Petersburg, and Paula Hawkins of Maitland, drafted a letter to President Nixon urging that Cramer, not Gurney, be the patronage advisor in Florida. Gurney quickly arranged a "peace" meeting with his intraparty rivals, and they never mailed the letter.[79]
Gurney retired as senator in 1974. He later failed in an effort to regain his former House seat. He was charged and acquitted of taking $300,000 in kickbacks from federal housing contracts.[80]
Cramer never again sought public office and declined to consider an appointment as a federal judge. Based on his long experience in Washington, DC, he opened a law practice (Cramer & Matthews) with offices in Washington, D.C. and Miami. The Florida office was run by his partner, F. Lawrence Matthews. Their offices were in the first high rise in downtown Miami (1 Biscayne Tower). In 1973, he and Matthews served as unpaid advisers to
In 1979, Cramer was selected by the Ford administration to head the first trade mission to
In the fall of 1988, his former House colleague George H. W. Bush was elected as president, and Cramer returned to St. Petersburg. He established another law practice and became involved in real estate with his friend and former aide Jack Inscoe.[81]
The Florida GOP made little headway during the 1970s. Republicans lost the Gurney Senate seat in 1974 but regained it in 1980. The party did not win the governorship until 1986, when the former Democrat Bob Martinez was elected as the state's first ever Hispanic chief executive. Martinez was unseated in 1990 by former U.S. Senator Lawton Chiles, who won the first of two consecutive terms as governor. By 1989, Florida Republican gained their first majority among members of the state's congressional delegation. The Florida GOP made gains in party registration during the 1980s, having majorities of registered party members in twelve counties. In October 1988, Republicans numbered 2,360,434, compared to 3,264,105 for the Democrats.[82]
Time and circumstance often measure a man's future. Quite often if you aspire to something, it becomes more unattainable because you are seeking it.
— William C. Cramer
Fraternal and civic activities
Cramer was a member of
Death and legacy
Cramer died at the age of eighty-one in South Pasadena, Florida, from complications of a heart attack. He was survived by his second wife of eleven years, the former Sarah Ellen (née Bromelow) Hilber. He and his first wife Alice had three sons together before their divorce: William C. Cramer, Jr., who became an attorney and car dealer in Panama City; Mark C. Cramer, an attorney in Charlotte, North Carolina; and Allyn Walters Cramer, a car dealer in Dothan, Alabama (his mother's hometown); two stepsons, Richard D. Hilber of St. Petersburg and Jason E. Hilber of Odessa, Florida; and eight grandchildren.[2] Cramer is interred at Woodlawn Memory Gardens in St. Petersburg.
The William C. Cramer Post Office in St. Petersburg is named in his honor.[5]
Historian Billy Hathorn says that the Cramer-Kirk schism so damaged the growth of the Republican Party in the state that it took years to recover. He believes that the party lost an opportunity in the 1970 campaign, when it lost the governorship and a US Senate seat.[84] But that year Democratic candidates swept the entire South, and it took years for the shift among conservative whites to the Republican Party to take place. After the 1970 schism, the Florida GOP were confronted by the continued success for years of noncontroversial Democrats considered to be "moderates." But since the late 20th century, more voters in Florida have shifted to register and vote Republican, supporting their candidates for statewide leadership.[84]
References
- ^ "Justin C. Whitney, "Florida expressways and the public works career of Congressman William C. Cramer," 2008, University of South Florida, posted at Scholar Commons, accessed 11 February 2016".
- ^ a b c d "Wolfgang Saxon, "William C. Cramer, 81, a Leader of G.O.P. Resurgence in South", October 27, 2003". The New York Times. Retrieved December 26, 2011.
- ^ ISBN 9780226845272– via Google Books.
- ^ Billy Hathorn, "Cramer v. Kirk: The Florida Republican Schism of 1970", The Florida Historical Quarterly, LXVII, No. 4 (April 1990), p. 404
- ^ a b c d e f William C. Cramer, Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, p. 697
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 404
- ^ a b c Billy Hathorn, "Cramer v. Kirk: The Florida Republican Schism of 1970", The Florida Historical Quarterly, LXVII, No. 4 (April 1990)
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk," pp. 404-405
- ^ a b c d "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 405
- ^ State of Florida, General election returns, November 4, 1952, and November 2, 1954
- ^ a b "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 406
- Robert Lee Fulton Sikes, He-Coon: The Bob Sikes Story (Pensacola, Florida, 1985), p. 324
- ^ Osro Cobb, Osro Cobb of Arkansas: Memoirs of Historical Significance, Carol Griffee, ed. (Little Rock, Arkansas: Rose Publishing Company, 1989), p. 249
- ^ "Southern Congressmen Present Segregation Manifesto". CQ Almanac. 1956. Retrieved January 3, 2024.
- ^ "HR 6127. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957". GovTrack.us.
- ^ "HR 8601. PASSAGE. -- House Vote #102 -- Mar 24, 1960". GovTrack.us.
- ^ "H.R. 7152. PASSAGE. -- House Vote #128 -- Feb 10, 1964". GovTrack.us.
- ^ "S.J. RES. 29. CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT TO BAN THE USE OF POLL TAX AS A REQUIREMENT FOR VOTING IN FEDERAL ELECTIONS". GovTrack.us.
- ^ "TO PASS H.R. 6400, THE 1965 VOTING RIGHTS ACT. -- House Vote #87 -- Jul 9, 1965". GovTrack.us.
- ^ "TO PASS H.R. 2516, A BILL TO ESTABLISH PENALTIES FOR … -- House Vote #113 -- Aug 16, 1967". GovTrack.us.
- ^ "TO PASS H. RES. 1100, A RESOLUTION PROVIDING THAT IMMEDIATELY ON THE ADOPTION OF THIS RESOLUTION, THE BILL (H.R. 2516) PRESCRIBING PENALTIES FOR INTERFERING WITH ANY PERSON IN THE PERFORMANCE OF HIS CIVIL RIGHTS, AND MAKING CERTAIN ANTIRIOT LEGISLATION, SHALL, TOGETHER WITH A SENATE AMENDMENT THERETO, PROVIDING PENALTIES FOR DISCRIMINATION IN THE SALE OR RENT OF HOUSING, BE TAKEN FROM THE SPEAKER'S TABLE, TO THE END THAT SAID AMENDMENT IS AGREED TO. -- House Vote #295 -- Apr 10, 1968". GovTrack.us.
- ^ Whitney (2008), Abstract: "Federal expressways and public works of Cramer," p.ii
- ^ a b "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 407
- ^ State of Florida, General election returns, November 8, 1966
- ^ a b "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 408
- ^ a b "Cramer v. Kirk," p. 409
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 409
- ^ a b "Cramer v. Kirk," p. 410
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk, p. 414
- ^ The New York Times, April 9, 26, and July 15, 1970
- ^ a b "Cramer v. Kirk," p. 411
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 411
- ^ Miami Herald, September 4, 1970; U.S. News & World Report, September 7, 1970, pp. 34-35
- ^ The New York Times, April 21, 23, 29 and September 9, 1970
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk," p. 412
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk," p. 413
- Time, September 21, 1970, pp. 16-17; Tallahassee Democrat, September 6, 1970
- ^ The New York Times, July 31, 1970, Miami Herald, September 4, 1970; Tallahassee Democrat, September 6, 1970
- ^ Miami Herald, September 5, 1970
- ^ The New York Times, August 31, 1970
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 414; Tallahassee Democrat, September 4, 1970
- ^ State of Florida, Primary election returns, September 8, 1970
- ^ Tallahassee Democrat, September 10, 1970
- ^ Miami Herald, September 6, 1977
- ^ State of Florida, Primary election returns September 8 and 29, 1970
- ^ Tallahassee Democrat, September 12, 14, 1970
- ^ Cramer v. Kirk, pp. 414-415
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk", pp. 415-416
- ^ Miami Herald, October 1, 11, 1970
- ^ Miami Herald and Tallahassee Democrat, October 30, 1970
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 416
- ^ Miami Herald, October 10, 1970; Tallahassee Democrat, October 10, 18, 1970
- ^ "Inflation Calculator | Find US Dollar's Value from 1913-2022". www.usinflationcalculator.com.
- ^ Miami Herald, October 23, 1970; Tallahassee Democrat, November 1, 1970
- ^ Lamis, Two-Party South, p. 185; Miami Herald, September 9, 1970; Tallahassee Democrat, September 6 and November 1, 1970
- ^ Tallahassee Democrat, November 1, 1970
- ^ Tallahassee Democrat, November 1, 1970; Miami Herald, September 4, 1970
- ^ Miami Herald, September 9 and October 29, 1970
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 418
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk" p. 418
- ^ Jack Bass and Walter DeVries, The Transformation of Southern Politics: Social Change and Political Consequence Since 1945 (New York, 1976), p. 116
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 419
- Baltimore, Maryland, 1975), pp. 146-147; Miami Herald, October 27, 1970
- ^ The New York Times, October 11, 1970
- ^ Cramer v. Kirk," p. 419
- ^ Tallahassee Democrat, September 30, 1970
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk," p. 420
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 420
- ^ Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Richard Nixon (Washington, D.C., 1971), p. 950
- ^ Nixon Papers, pp. 951-956
- ^ Nixon Papers, p. 962; The New York Times, October 30, 1970
- ^ Tallahassee Democrat, October 28, 29, 1970
- ^ a b "Cramer v. Kirk," p. 421
- ^ Nick Thimmesch, The Condition of Republicanism (New York, 1968), p. 239
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk," pp., 421-422
- ^ a b State of Florida, General election returns, November 3, 1970
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 422
- ^ Tampa Tribune, June 18, 1967
- ^ Tampa Tribune, June 13, 1971; Miami Herald, September 27, 1971
- ^ Lamis, Two-Party South, p. 293; Bass and DeVries, The Transformation of Southern Politics, p. 125
- ^ a b "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 424
- ^ "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 425
- ^ "Cramer". Political Graveyard. Retrieved December 28, 2011.
- ^ a b "Cramer v. Kirk", p. 426