Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia

Ficus is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes of the family Moraceae, which are collectively known as fig trees or figs. These plants are native to the tropics, with some species extending into the semi-warm temperate zone. Despite not being a genus exclusive to the Austronesian regions, several species such as ficus dammaropsis, ficus fistulosa, ficus hispida, ficus nota, ficus pseudopalma, ficus septica, ficus variegata, ficus aspera, ficus fraseri, ficus tinctoria, ficus ulmifolia, ficus wassa, ficus mutabilis, ficus deltoidea, ficus nota and ficus pseudopalma are endemic to these regions, and played an important role in Austronesian cultures.^{[162][163][164][165][166][167][168][169][170][171][172][173]}

Ficus aspera

Ficus aspera, also known as mosaic fig, is a plant native to Vanuatu, in the South Pacific region. The fruits of this plant are cauliflowerous (fruits that form from their main stems or woody trunks instead of new shoots). The mosaic fig is used as an ornamental plant.^[170][174]

Ficus dammaropsis

Ficus dammaropsis, known as kapiak in

Ficus fraseru, also known as white sandpaper fig and bright sandpaper fig is one of several species of figs known as paper figs' sandpaper . This fig is native to New South Wales, Queensland, and Northern New Caledonia and Vanuatu. This fig grows as a bush or as a tree, with a height that varies between 6 and 15 meters. Its leaves are 6 to 14 cm long and 2.5 to 6.5 cm wide on petioles 1 to 2 cm long. The rounded figs are 1 to 1.5 cm long and start out yellow, maturing to orange-red between May and February in the species' native range. These are edible but tasteless.^{[176][171][177][178]} Although rarely seen in cultivation, it is a fast growing ornamental species. It can be easily propagated from seeds.

Ficus nota

Ficus nota, is a species of flowering plant known as tibig, found near water at low altitudes. The tibig is native to the Philippines. They are also found in parts of northern Borneo, in Malaysia. The tree can grow up to 9 meters high.

The fruits are also edible for humans, although they are quite tasteless. They are usually eaten with sugar and cream in the Philippines. The raw leaves are also eaten as a vegetable.^{[179][180][181]}

Ficus pseudopalma

Ficus pseudopalma, is a species of fig commonly known as Philippine fig, Philippine fig, dracaena fig or palm leaf fig' . This is an endemic species of Philippines, especially the island of Luzon.^[182][183]

This is a bush that grows erect with a bare, branchless stem topped with a clump of leaves that give it the appearance of a palm tree (hence the term pseudopalma in its name, meaning "false palm"). The fruit is a dark green fig that grows in pairs, each fruit just over an inch long.^[184]

In Luzon, this plant is found in grassland and forest habitats, where it is considered common. The shoots of this plant are consumed as a type of vegetable, and there are several traditional uses; among these is its use as a remedy for

Palms are favorable host species. The root systems of the coloring fig can join to be self-supporting, but the epiphyte usually drops if the host tree dies or rots. The small rust-brown fruit of the dye fig is the source of a red dye used in traditional fabric making in parts of Oceania and Indonesia. The fruit is also edible and an important food source in the low-lying atolls of Micronesia and Polynesia.[187]^[188]

Ficus variegata

Ficus variegata, is a species of tropical fig found in various parts of Asia, Pacific islands and southeastern Australia. There are several names for this species, such as common red-stemmed fig, green-fruited fig and variegated fig.^[169][168]

Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato)

Lagenaria siceraria (bottle gourd)

Morinda citrifolia (noni)

Noni (Morinda citrifolia) is native to Southeast Asia extending to New Guinea and northern Australia. It grows readily in beach and rocky environments. It has been introduced widely into the Pacific. All parts of the plant were used by Austronesians for traditional medicine and timber, but its most common traditional use is for the extraction of red or yellow dyes. The odor of the plant and the fruit was also traditionally believed to repel evil spirits. The fruit is also edible, but is usually only eaten as famine food.^[189]

There are several terms for noni that can be reconstructed. The most widespread is

These ancient introductions resulted in the banana subgroup now known as the

Fe'i bananas (Musa × troglodytarum), also spelled Fehi or Féi, are banana cultivars unique to Melanesia, the Maluku Islands, and Polynesia. Unlike other domesticated banana cultivars which are derived from Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana, fe'i bananas are believed to be hybrids derived from entirely different species. Proposed progenitors of fe'i bananas include Musa jackeyi, Musa lolodensis, Musa maclayi, and Musa peekelii, all of which are native to New Guinea and surrounding islands. Like other bananas, they were spread eastwards to Polynesia for use as food. However, they are absent in Island Southeast Asia, reaching only as far as the Maluku Islands.^[192]

Oryza sativa (rice)

language family homelands (ca. 5,500 to 2,500 BP). The approximate coastlines during the early Holocene are shown in lighter blue. (Bellwood, 2011)^[193]

There are two most likely centers of domestication for rice as well as the development of the

pig domestication.^{[193][195][196][197][198][194][199]}

The second is in the middle Yangtze River, believed to be the homelands of the early

Kra-Dai speakers to the south, facilitating the spread of rice cultivation throughout southern China.^[194][193]

The spread of japonica rice cultivation to Southeast Asia started with the migrations of the Austronesian Dapenkeng culture into Taiwan between 5,500 and 4,000 BP. The Nanguanli site in Taiwan, dated to ca. 4,800 BP, has yielded numerous carbonized remains of both rice and millet in waterlogged conditions, indicating intensive wetland rice cultivation and dryland millet cultivation.^[193]

Hagåtña, Guam

From about 4,000 to 2,500 BP, the

Island Southeast Asia, moving westwards to Borneo, the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra; and southwards to Sulawesi and Java. By 2,500 BP, there is evidence of intensive wetland rice agriculture already established in Java and Bali, especially near very fertile volcanic islands.^[193]

However, rice (as well as dogs and pigs) did not survive the first Austronesian voyages into

wetland agriculture techniques to taro cultivation. The Lapita culture in Bismarck reestablished trade connections with other Austronesian branches in Island Southeast Asia.^[193]

The Lapita culture also came into contact with the non-Austronesian (

Papuan) early agriculturists of New Guinea and introduced wetland farming techniques to them. In turn, they assimilated their range of indigenous cultivated fruits and tubers, as well as reacquiring domesticated dogs and pigs, before spreading further eastward to Island Melanesia and Polynesia.^[193]

Rice, along with other Southeast Asian food plants, were also later introduced to Madagascar, the Comoros, and the coast of East Africa by around the 1st millennium CE by Austronesian sailors from the Greater Sunda Islands.^[139]

Much later Austronesian voyages from Island Southeast Asia succeeded in bringing rice to Guam during the Latte Period (1,100 to 300 BP). Guam is the only island in Oceania where rice was grown in pre-colonial times.^[200][201]

Pandanus (pandan)

Moloka'i, Hawaii

(c. 1913)

Pandanus (

animist Austronesian religions.^[202][203]

outrigger canoe from Temotu, Solomon Islands

Pandanus were also profoundly crucial in enabling the

Rapa Nui and Aotearoa is believed to have isolated their settlements from the rest of Polynesia.^[204][203]

The word for pandanus in

Indigenous Taiwanese, the meaning of the words have largely shifted to mean "pineapple", a physically similar non-native European-introduced plant. In Māori, as well, the meaning has shifted to Astelia spp. and Phormium tenax (harakeke), similar plants used for weaving, since pandanus did not survive the voyage into Aotearoa.^[205][206]

Pandanus grow well in island habitats, being very salt-tolerant and easy to propagate, making them ideal plants for early Austronesian sailors. Like coconuts, they grow predominantly along

western Pacific and Island Southeast Asia. The genus has around 600 species, but the most important and the most widespread group of species in Austronesian cultures and is the Pandanus tectorius complex.^[207]

Pandanus tectorius in Oceania show evidence of long cultivations, with hundreds of different

selectively bred cultivars which are primarily propagated through cuttings. These varieties often have different names in local languages and have different physical characteristics. The varieties are predominantly distinguished by the color and edibility of their fruit, but they may also be differentiated based on other criteria like the color and shape of their leaves used for weaving.^[207]

Very old fossils of Pandanus tectorius have been recovered from Hawaii, dated to more than 1.2 million years old. This indicates that the plants once colonized Hawaii (and likely the rest of the Pacific islands) naturally through their buoyant fruits. However, useful domesticated varieties were carried by Austronesians from island to island. Especially since wild pandanus have calcium oxalate crystals (raphides) in their fruit tissue. They cause itchiness and irritation when eaten raw and thus need to be cooked. Domesticated varieties which have less raphides (which are also usually less fibrous and more nutritious), were therefore valued . It is thus considered both native and introduced.^[207][203] There are also fossil evidence of pandanus fruits being harvested for food in New Guinea from archaeological sites dated to around 34,000 to 36,000 BP.^[203]

Other important species of pandanus utilized by Austronesians include

cuisines of Southeast Asia for their vanilla-like fragrant leaves.^[208]

Piper (peppers)

Peppers (

Piper longum) were also extensively cultivated in Island Southeast Asia after early contact by Austronesian traders with South India and Sri Lanka.^[210]

Piper betle (betel)

The betel (

betel chewing, the other being the areca nut (Areca catechu). It is one of the most ubiquitous practices of the Austronesians. It is consumed by taking a leaf of betel, wrapping it around an areca nut and some lime (obtained from grinding seashells), and then chewing it for some time. It is a stimulant, inducing slight dizziness followed by euphoria and alertness. It is also highly addictive, damages the teeth and gums, and stains the teeth red.^[211][25]

Based on archaeological, linguistic, and botanical evidence, betel chewing is most strongly associated with Austronesian cultures, despite its widespread adoption by neighboring cultures in prehistoric and historic times. The original range of betel is unknown, but Areca catechu is known to be originally native to the

endemic species. It is unknown when the two were combined, as areca nut alone can be chewed for its narcotic properties.^[211] In eastern Indonesia, however, leaves from the wild Piper caducibracteum (known as sirih hutan) are also harvested and used in place of betel leaves.^[212]

The oldest unequivocal evidence of betel chewing is from the

Austronesia.^[211]

It reached

Piper methysticum.^[214][17] It was also diffused into East Africa via the Austronesian settlement of Madagascar and the Comoros by around the 7th century.^[211]

The practice also diffused to the cultures the Austronesians had historical contact with. It reached

Mediterranean.^{[211][215][216]}

There are very old claims of betel chewing dating to at least 13,000 BP at the Kuk Swamp site in New Guinea, based on probable Areca sp. recovered. However, it is now known that these might have been due to modern contamination of sample materials. Similar claims have also been made at other older sites with Areca sp. remains, but none can be conclusively identified as A. carechu and their association with betel peppers is tenuous or nonexistent.^[211]

There are numerous cognate sets reconstructible in Austronesian languages relating to various aspects of betel chewing. Ranging from chewing something without swallowing to equipment used to climb areca nut palms to the betel spittle. One cognate set that can be reconstructed for betel pepper is

Kenyah auat or awet.^[17]

Two other cognate sets reached into Oceania. The first is Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *pu-pulu, which became Proto-Oceanic *[pu-]pulu. Cognates include

Banoni siɣana; and Marovo hirata.^[25][217]

Piper cubeba (cubeb pepper)

The cubeb pepper (

The Book of One Thousand and One Nights as well as in the travelogues of Marco Polo. Its trade waned during the Colonial Era when the Portuguese Empire banned its importation to promote the black pepper produced by its own colonies.^{[218][219][220][221]}

Piper excelsum (kawakawa)

Kawakawa (

reduplicated. It is a sacred tree among the Māori people. It is seen as a symbol of death, corresponding to the rangiora (Brachyglottis repanda) which is the symbol of life. Boughs of kawakawa are often used in purification rituals.^[222]

However, kawakawa's resemblance to true kava is only superficial. Kawakawa roots do not have psychoactive properties. Instead, kawakawa's primary use is for traditional medicine.[222]

Piper methysticum (kava)

Kava (

Papuans. It is believed to be a domesticated variety of Piper subbullatum which is native to New Guinea and the Philippines.^[217]

It was spread by Austronesians after contact into the rest of

psychoactive and narcotic properties, with a common effect being numbness around the lips and mouth. However, it is not hallucinogenic nor addictive. The potency of the root depends on the age of the plants. The leaves and roots can also be chewed directly resulting in a numbing effect and relaxation. It is traditionally consumed both in everyday social interactions and in religious rituals. Kava reached Hawaii, but it is absent in Aotearoa where it can not grow.^{[217][214][223]}

Consumption of kava is also believed to be the reason why

betel chewing, ubiquitous elsewhere, was lost for Austronesians in Oceania.^[17]

According to Lynch (2002), the reconstructed

Rarotongan kava; Samoan and Marquesan ʻava; and Hawaiian ʻawa. In some languages, most notably Māori kawa, the cognates have come to mean "bitter", "sour", or "acrid" to the taste.^{[217][224][213][25]}

In the

Piper. The reduplication of the base form is indicative of falsehood or likeness, in the sense of "false kava".^[222][223]

Piper retrofractum (Javanese long pepper)

The Javanese long pepper (

Piper longum) and is used in the same way in Southeast Asian cuisine.^[26][152]

Saccharum (sugarcane)

S. barberi in India; dotted arrows represent Austronesian introductions^[225]

There are two centers of domestication for

Papuans in New Guinea and another for Saccharum sinense by Austronesians in Taiwan and southern China. Papuans and Austronesians originally primarily used sugarcane as food for domesticated pigs. The spread of both S. officinarum and S. sinense is closely linked to the migrations of the Austronesian peoples.^[226][227]

Saccharum officinarum was first domesticated in

Island Southeast Asia after contact with Austronesians, where it hybridized with Saccharum spontaneum.^[227]

The second domestication center is mainland southern China and Taiwan where S. sinense (though other authors identify it as S. spontaneum) was one of the original major crops of the

Mediterranean.^[227][225]

The reconstructed word for "sugarcane" in

Rarotongan, and Tongan tō; Hawaiian kō; and Rapa Nui to or ta.^[25][17] In Malagasy, however, the word for "sugarcane" is fary, which is instead derived from Proto-Austronesian *pajey, meaning "rice".^[232]

Solanum

Several species of Solanum have been utilised as food and medicine by the Austronesian people. Species cultivated include Kangaroo apple (Solanum aviculare), poroporo (Solanum laciniatum), Indian nightshade (Solanum lasiocarpum), pacific tomato (Solanum repandum) and cannibals tomato (Solanum viride).

Syzygium

Trees in the genus

Syzygium aromaticum) and Indonesian bay leaf (Syzygium polyanthum).^[18]

Syzygium malaccense (mountain apple)

Mountain apples in Maui

The mountain apple (

Island Southeast Asia and were cultivated since prehistory. They were all carried by Austronesians into the Pacific and planted deliberately.^[10][233]

Mountain apple in bloom in Tonga

They were valued primarily for their abundant edible fruits. It is also used for timber (usually for building houses) and parts of the trees are used in traditional medicine. The attractive flowers are also worn as personal hair adornments and in making

endemic to the Pacific Islands were also utilized similarly, like Syzygium corynocarpum and Syzygium neurocalyx.^{[10][234][233]}

There numerous names for mountain apples in Austronesian languages. In the Philippines, the terms can be reconstructed to

Bikol makópa.^[17]

In Oceania, there are several cognate sets reconstructible for mountain apples and related species. Four of which are *pokaq, *marisapa, *sakau and *cay, with limited

Rarotongan kaʻika; and Māori kahika. In Māori, the names have shifted to Metrosideros fulgens, which have similar-looking flowers, as Malay apples did not survive into Aotearoa.^[17][217]

Tacca leontopetaloides (Polynesian arrowroot)

Polynesian arrowroot (Tacca leontopetaloides) is another ancient Austronesian root crop closely related to yams. It is originally native to Island Southeast Asia. It was introduced throughout the entire range of the Austronesian expansion, including Micronesia, Polynesia, and Madagascar. Polynesian arrowroot have been identified as among the cultivated crops in Lapita sites in Palau, dating back to 3,000 to 2,000 BP.^[235] It was also introduced to Sri Lanka, southern India, and possibly also Australia through trade and contact.^[236]

Polynesian arrowroot in Maui

Polynesian arrowroot was a minor staple among Austronesians. The roots are bitter if not prepared properly, thus it was only cultivated as a secondary crop to staples like

Colocasia esculenta. Its importance increased for settlers in the Pacific Islands, where food plants were scarcer, and it was introduced to virtually all the inhabited islands. They were valued for their ability to grow in low islands and atolls, and were often the staple crops in islands with these conditions. In larger islands, they were usually allowed to grow feral and were useful only as famine food. Several cultivars have been developed in Polynesia due to the thousands of years of artificial selection. The starch extracted from the root with traditional methods can last for a very long time, and thus can be stored or traded.^[235] The starch can be cooked in leaves to make starchy puddings.^[237] Due to the introduction of modern crops, it is rarely cultivated today.^[235]

The names for Polynesian arrowroot in

Artocarpus altilis).^[217]

Derivations from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *sagu ("sago palm"), include

Rarotongan, and Hawaiian pia.^[217]

Talipariti tiliaceum (sea hibiscus)

Puna'auia, Tahiti

Sea hibiscus (

endemic to the Philippines and Sulawesi, with the rest widespread throughout its range or native to large regions of Southeast Asia and the Pacific. The seeds remain viable for months after floating in the sea. However, no remains of beach hibiscus have been recovered from Polynesia prior to the Austronesian arrival, making it clear that they were introduced by Austronesian voyagers.^[238][239]

The wood is soft and not very durable, so it is mostly only used for products like carvings, spears, bowls, and bracelets. However, it is also resistant to saltwater and thus can be used to make small canoes and outriggers. The wood is also preferred for

caulking. The bark is also used in the production of tempeh in Southeast Asia, and kava drinks in Polynesia. The attractive flowers are commonly made into leis in Hawaii.^[240]

The terms for beach hibiscus can be reconstructed to

Anejom n-hau; Fijian vau; Tongan and Samoan fau; Rotuman, Rennellese, and Hawaiian hau; and Māori whau.^[17]

In addition, there are numerous terms relating to the use of sea hibiscus for cordage and fiber in various Austronesian languages which can be traced back to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian or Proto-Austronesian, like *Calis, "rope".[17]

Thespesia populnea (Pacific rosewood)

The Pacific rosewood (

outrigger ships and carving. Pacific rosewood is native to the Old World tropics. Like beach hibiscus, the seeds remain viable for months after floating in the sea but no remains of T. populnea have been recovered from Polynesia prior to the Austronesian expansion. Thus it is regarded as deliberate introductions by Austronesian settlers.^[238][239]

The trees were regarded as sacred in Polynesian culture, and were commonly planted in marae sites along with trees like Ficus, Fagraea berteroana, Casuarina equisetifolia and Calophyllum inophyllum.^[238][239]

The terms for Pacific rosewood can be reconstructed to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *balu, with cognates including

Hanunó'o banagu; Tolai banar; Patpatar banaro; Mota vanau; and Pohnpeian pana.^[17]

In Eastern Polynesia, most modern names can be reconstructed back to Proto-Eastern Oceanic *milo, with cognates including

Rapa Nui.^[241]

Zingiberaceae (ginger family)

Gingers (

Zingiber officinale). Other species were also exploited at a smaller scale or harvested from the wild, including dwarf cardamom (Alpinia nutans), panasa cardamom (Amomum acre), white turmeric (Curcuma zedoaria), jiddo (Hornstedtia scottiana), white ginger lily (Hedychium coronarium), and bitter ginger (Zingiber zerumbet).^{[217][17][242]}

Alpinia galanga (lengkuas)

Lengkuas rhizomes from Malaysia

The lengkuas (Alpinia galanga) is native to Southeast Asia. Its original center of cultivation during the spice trade was Java, and today it is still cultivated extensively in Island Southeast Asia, most notably in the Greater Sunda Islands and the Philippines. It is valued for its use in food and for traditional medicine and is regarded as being superior to ginger. It has a pungent smell reminiscent of black pepper. The red and white cultivars are often used differently, with the red cultivars being primarily medicinal, and the white cultivars being primarily a spice.^[152][243] Lengkuas is also the source of the leaves used to make nanel among the Kavalan people of Taiwan, a rolled leaf instrument used as a traditional children's toy common among Austronesian cultures.^[244]

Lengkuas can be reconstructed to Proto-Western Malayo-Polynesian *laŋkuas, with cognates including

Ngaju Dayak langkuas; Iban engkuas; and Malay lengkuas (from which the English name is derived from). Some of the names have become generalized and are also applied to other species of Alpinia as well as for Curcuma zedoaria.^[17]

Curcuma longa (turmeric)

There is strong evidence that turmeric (

Curcuma longa) as well as the related white turmeric (Curcuma zedoaria) were independently domesticated by Austronesians. Turmeric has a very widespread distribution and names that pre-date contact with India, being found among all Austronesian regions with the exception of Taiwan. However, it was seemingly originally domesticated for the production of dyes, eventually contributing to the words for "yellow" and "red" in various Austronesian languages.^[245]

The plant is important in the Philippines and Indonesia as a traditional

Yap. In Polynesia and Melanesia, they are primarily used as body paint in rituals or as a cosmetic. The latter regions have been isolated for centuries from the rest of Island Southeast Asia prior to European contact.^[245][246]

There are two main

Betsimisaraka, the cognates hónitra and húnitra have shifted meaning to a different plant used to make red dye. Other cognates like Ilocano kimmúnig; Uma mo-kuni, and Tae' pakuniran all mean "yellow" or "to dye something yellow".^[245][17]

The other cognate set is derived from reconstructed

Antankarana manamutamu.^[245][17]

In

etymons. The latter probably originally applied to the dye produced from turmeric, while the former referred originally to the plant itself. Cognates include Fijian cango; and Tongan and Rennellese ango. Cognates that mean "yellow" also exist in numerous other languages in Near Oceania.^[245][17]

Zingiber officinale (ginger)

Ginger (

Zingiber officinale) is native to Island Southeast Asia and was probably originally domesticated by Austronesians. It is an ancient and ubiquitous crop among Austronesians, reaching all the way to Remote Oceania and Madagascar.^{[220][247][248]} Aside from being used for cuisine, ginger appears to have significant religious and medicinal roles in early Austronesian cultures, based on the glosses it acquired. Ginger were chewed by shamans and spat out intermittently in rituals for healing, warding, and blessing ships.^[17]

In

Proto-Austronesian, the terms for ginger can be reconstructed to *dukduk. With cognates including Pazeh dukuduk; Thao suksuk; Tsou cucʻu; and Saaroa suusuku. This was replaced by *laqia in languages south of Taiwan.^[17]

The terms for ginger beyond Taiwan can be reconstructed to

'Āre'āre and Arosi ria; Sa'a lie; and Fijian cango laya.^[17]

Zingiber zerumbet (bitter ginger)

Bitter ginger (Zingiber zerumbet) is native to tropical Asia and Australasia. Like the ginger, was carried by Austronesian settlers all the way to Remote Oceania during prehistoric times. Thus it is likely that it was originally domesticated by Austronesians. Remains of bitter ginger have also been identified from the Kuk Swamp archaeological site in New Guinea at the Phase 1 layers dated to 10,220 to 9,910 BP. However, whether they were cultivated or simply exploited from the wild is unknown.^[249][224]

Bitter ginger is primarily used for traditional medicine. It also has mildly psychoactive properties when consumed, and thus had ritual importance among early Austronesian cultures. According to Lynch (2002), terms for bitter ginger in the sense of "bitter root" or "potent root [used as

Piper methysticum), which has similar properties and is also bitter-tasting, when Austronesians of the Lapita culture first encountered it among the indigenous non-Austronesian peoples in Melanesia.^{[217][224][213]}

Some

fish poison, or as words to describe bitter, sour, or acrid flavors.^[25]

In non-Oceanic languages, terms for bitter ginger can be reconstructed to Proto-Western Malayo-Polynesian *lampuyaŋ, with cognates including

Ngaju Dayak lampuyang; Javanese lempuyang; and Malay lempoyang.^[17]

Animals

Domesticated, semi-domesticated, and commensal animals carried by Austronesian voyagers include the following:

Bubalus bubalis (water buffalo)

Main articles: Carabao and Water buffalo

Island Southeast Asia from mainland Asia. Early introductions were specifically of the swamp-type water buffaloes (like the carabao), although they are increasingly being replaced by river-type water buffaloes imported from South Asia in recent times.^[250]

The earliest remains of water buffaloes in Island Southeast Asia with signs of domestication comes from multiple fragmentary skeletal remains recovered from the upper layers of the

radiocarbon date of the layer in which the oldest fragments were found, water buffaloes were first introduced to the Philippines by at least 500 BCE.^[251][252]

The

Island Southeast Asia via western Indonesia.^[256][257]

However, it is also clear that

Island Southeast Asia until the second introduction from Mainland Southeast Asia. The reason for this is unknown.^{[256][254][258]}

Other native names for carabaos include

Bikol, and Kapampangan; dueg in Pangasinan; and pagad in Ivatan.^[259]

Bos javanicus domesticus (Bali cattle)

Bali cattle were domesticated in Bali from the wild banteng around 3500 BCE.

Canis lupus familiaris (dog)

See also:

Polynesian dog, New Guinea singing dog, and Dingo

Island Southeast Asian and Oceanian dogs, based on recent genetic evidence (Fillios & Taçon, 2016)^[260]

Dogs were primarily valued for their social functions in various Austronesian cultures, acting as companions and pets. They were also trained to be hunting or guard dogs. Ornaments made from dog fur, teeth, and bones are found in archaeological sites throughout Austronesia. These could be traded as commodities, along with dog pups. Dogs were also sometimes eaten, but this varies by culture, with most groups refusing to eat dogs, while in others they were apparently a main food source.^{[260][261][262][263][264]}

The origins of the dog (

Island Southeast Asia, Australia, and New Guinea are contentious, with various authors proposing origins from either Mainland Southeast Asia, Taiwan, or both at different times. These introduction events have been linked to the origin of the Australian dingoes and the New Guinea singing dogs, both of which are clearly descended from domesticated dogs. The specifics of which population they are derived from, who introduced them, and whether they come from a common ancestor, however, still do not have a consensus.^{[260][265][261]}

Regardless, most authors agree that there were at least two introduction events. One arriving with

cereal crops.^[260][265]

The Neolithic introductions are believed to have partially replaced the original introductions and became the ancestors of the modern village dogs of Southeast Asia. Unlike the first wave, they have adaptations that enable them to digest starch, indicating that they accompanied cultivators of

cereal crops.^[265][263]

The oldest archaeological remains of dogs in Island Southeast Asia and Oceania is a dog burial in Timor and dingo remains in Australia, both of which are dated to around 3,500 BP. The former are believed to have been part of the second wave and the latter from the first wave.^{[262][266][264]}

From Island Southeast Asia, they were carried by Austronesian voyagers into

Polynesian dogs are apparently descended from the first wave of dog introductions and are not related to the dogs originating from Taiwan and the Philippines, though this may be an artifact of a founder effect.^{[261][262][264]}

On certain Pacific islands, settlers did not bring dogs, or the dogs died out after original settlement, notably: the

Marquesas,^[271] Mangaia in the Cook Islands, Rapa Iti in French Polynesia, Easter Island,^[271] Chatham Islands,^[272] and Pitcairn Island (settled by the Bounty mutineers, who killed off their dogs in order to escape discovery by passing ships^[273]

).

Dogs were not introduced to Madagascar by Austronesians. A genetic study by Ardalan et al. (2015) revealed that the dog population in Madagascar were all derived solely from African dog populations and did not come from Southeast Asian dog populations. This aberrant origin is also reflected in the

Malagasy languages, where the terms for "dog" originate entirely from African Bantu languages.^[274][275] Given the inferred importance of dogs to Austronesian voyagers, the authors proposed that the Austronesian settlers in Madagascar may have initially brought dogs, but they either died or were used as food sources during the journey. Another possibility is that the limited initial number of Austronesian dogs may have simply resulted in their genes getting swamped by the influx of a far larger population of dogs from Africa.^[274][275]

Gallus gallus (chicken)

Austronesian expansion (c. 4000 BP), inferred from genetic markers on ancient and modern chicken DNA^[276]

Island Southeast Asia in their voyages to the islands of Oceania.^[277][276]

Sus scrofa domesticus (pig)

Island Southeast Asia in their voyages to the islands of Oceania.^[277]

Rodentia (rodents)

The following rodent species are common in mainland Southeast Asia, but are restricted to areas of wet rice cultivation in western Indonesia (Sumatra and Java).^[278]

Mus caroli

Mus cervicolor

Rattus argentiventer

Bandicota bengalensis

The following two rodents are native to South Asia and also present in western Indonesian rice fields, so their presence in

Island Southeast Asia cannot easily be explained by Austronesian expansions, but perhaps instead by the Indian Ocean trade.^[278]

Mus terricolor (also known as Mus dunni

)

Indigenous to northwestern India

Rattus nitidus

(indigenous to Nepal)

Rattus exulans

)

This rat originated on the island of Flores in Indonesia.^[279] Polynesians accidentally or deliberately introduced it to the islands they settled. This rat has been implicated in many of the extinctions of native birds and insects in the Pacific; these species had evolved in the absence of mammals and could not cope with predation by the rat.

See also

• Agriculture in Papua New Guinea
• Catamaran
• Crab claw sail
• Domesticated plants of Mesoamerica
• Genomics of domestication
• History of agriculture
• List of food origins
• Outrigger canoe
• Proto-Oceanic language § Lexicon
• Tanja sail

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