Art in Nazi Germany
Heroic Realism |
The
Theory
As indicated by historian Henry Grosshans in his book Hitler and the Artists, Adolf Hitler who came to power in 1933 (quote): "saw Greek and Roman art as uncontaminated by Jewish influences. Modern art was [perceived by him as] an act of aesthetic violence by the Jews against the German spirit. Such was true to Hitler – wrote Grosshans – even though only Liebermann, Meidner, Freundlich, and Marc Chagall, among those who made significant contributions to the German modernist movement, were Jewish. But Hitler ... took upon himself the responsibility of deciding who, in matters of culture, thought and acted like a Jew."[4] The supposedly "Jewish" nature of art that was indecipherable, distorted, or that represented "depraved" subject matter was explained through the concept of degeneracy, which held that distorted and corrupted art was a symptom of an inferior race.
By propagating the theory of
In July 1937, two officially sponsored exhibitions opened in
Historical background
The early twentieth century was characterized by startling changes in artistic styles. In the visual arts, such innovations as
Creation of the Reichskulturkammer
In September 1933, the
Nazi cultural policy
By 1935, the Reich Culture Chamber had 100,000 members.
Document No. 2030-PS: Decree Concerning the Duties of the Reich Ministry for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda of June 1933 stated that: "The Reich Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda has jurisdiction over the whole field of spiritual indoctrination of the nation, of propagandizing the State, of cultural and economic propaganda, of enlightenment of the public at home and abroad; furthermore, he is in charge of the administration of all institutions serving these purposes".[15] This increased the jurisdiction of the Reich Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda to include "enlightenment in foreign countries; art; art exhibitions; moving pictures and sport abroad" ... [and increased jurisdiction in domestic] "Press (including the Institute for Journalism); Radio; National anthem; German Library in Leipzig; Art; Music (including the Philharmonic Orchestra); Theater; Moving Pictures; Campaign against dirty and obscene literature" ... Propaganda for tourism." Signed by The Reich Chancellor, Adolf Hitler.[15]
Document No. 2078-PS: Decree concerning the establishment of the Reichs Ministry of Science, Education and Popular Culture of 1 May 1934 stated that: "The Chancellor of the Reich will determine the various duties of the Reich Ministry for Science, Education, and Popular Culture."[16] Signed by The President of the Reich, von Hindenburg, and The Chancellor of the Reich, Adolf Hitler.
Document No. 1708-PS: The program of the NSDAP stated that: only members of the German race can be citizens (Jews, specifically are denied citizenship), and that non-members of the race can only live in Germany as registered 'guests'. Point 23 stated: "We demand legal prosecution of artistic and literary forms which exert a destructive influence on our national life, and the closure of organizations opposing the above made demands.[17]
Art theft
Nazis began plundering Jewish collections from 1933 in Germany with the Aryanization of Jewish art dealerships like that of Alfred Flechtheim and the transfer to non-Jewish owners.[18][19] In each country occupied by the Nazis, including Austria,[20] France,[21] Holland[22] and others, Jewish art collectors and art dealers were forced out of business and plundered as part of the Holocaust.[23]
Later, as the occupiers of Europe, the Germans trawled the museums and private collections of Europe for suitably "Aryan" art to be acquired to fill a bombastic new gallery in Hitler's home town of Linz. At first a pretense was made of exchanges of works (sometimes with Impressionist masterpieces, considered degenerate by the Nazis), but later acquisitions came through forced "donations" and eventually by simple looting.[24]
The purge of art in Germany and occupied countries was extremely broad. The Nazi theft is considered to be the largest art theft in modern history including paintings, furniture, sculptures, and anything in between considered either valuable, or opposing Hitler's purification of German culture.
During the Second World War, art theft by German forces was devastating, and the resurfacing of missing stolen art continues today, along with the fight for rightful ownership. Not only did the Reich confiscate and reallocate countless masterpieces from occupied territories during the war, but also put to auction a large portion of Germany's collection of great art from museums and art galleries. In the end, the confiscation committees removed over 15,000 works of art from German public collections alone.[25]
It took four years to "refine" the Nazi art criteria; in the end what was tolerated was whatever Hitler liked, and whatever was most useful to the German government from the point of view of creating propaganda. A thorough head-hunting of artists within Germany was in effect from the beginning of the Second World War, which included the elimination of countless members within the art community. Museum directors that supported modern art were attacked; artists that refused to comply with Reich-approved art were forbidden to practise art altogether. To enforce the prohibition of practising art, agents of the Gestapo routinely made unexpected visits to artist's homes and studios. Wet brushes found during the inspections or even the smell of turpentine in the air was reason enough for arrest. In response to the oppressive restrictions, many artists chose to flee Germany.[26]
Before the impending war and a time of simply looting occupied nation's art treasures, but during the Reich's efforts to free Germany of conflicting art, authorities of the Nazi party realized the potential revenue of Germany's own collection of art that was considered degenerate art which was to be purged from German culture. The Reich began to collect and auction countless pieces of art—for example, "on June 30, 1939 a major auction took place at the elegant Grand Hotel National in the Swiss resort town of Lucerne".[27] All of the paintings and sculptures had recently been on display in museums throughout Germany. This collection offered over 100 paintings and sculptures by numerous famous artists, such as Henri Matisse, Vincent van Gogh, and Pablo Picasso; all of which were considered "degenerate" pieces by Nazi authorities and were to be banished from Germany. An auction of this magnitude was viewed as suspicious by potential buyers, who feared that the profits would end up funding the Nazi party: "The auctioneer had been so worried about this perception that he had sent letters to leading dealers assuring them that all profits would be used for German museums".[28] In reality, all of the proceeds from the auction were deposited into "German controlled-accounts", and the museums "... as all had suspected, did not receive a penny".[29]
Genres
Belief in a Germanic spirit—defined as mystical, rural, moral, bearing ancient wisdom, noble in the face of a tragic destiny—existed long before the rise of the Nazis; Richard Wagner celebrated such ideas in his work.[30] Beginning before World War I the well-known German architect and painter Paul Schultze-Naumburg's influential writings, which invoked racial theories in condemning modern art and architecture, supplied much of the basis for Adolf Hitler's belief that classical Greece and the Middle Ages were the true sources of Aryan art.[31]
Among the well-known artists endorsed by the Nazis were the sculptors Josef Thorak and Arno Breker, and painters Werner Peiner, Arthur Kampf, Adolf Wissel and Conrad Hommel. In July 1937, four years after it came to power, the Nazi party put on two art exhibitions in Munich. The Great German Art Exhibition was designed to show works that Hitler approved of, depicting statuesque blonde nudes along with idealized soldiers and landscapes. The second exhibition, just down the road, showed the other side of German art: modern, abstract, non-representational—or as the Nazis saw it, "degenerate".
According to Klaus Fischer, "Nazi art, in short, was colossal, impersonal, and stereotypical. People were shorn of all individuality and became mere emblems expressive of assumed eternal truths. In looking at Nazi architecture, art, or painting one quickly gains the feeling that the faces, shapes, and colors all serve a propagandistic purpose; they are all the same stylized statements of Nazi virtues—power, strength, solidity, Nordic beauty."[32]
Painting
Art of Nazi Germany was characterized by a style of
In general, painting—once purged of "degenerate art"—was based on traditional genre painting.[3] Titles were purposeful: "Fruitful Land", "Liberated Land", "Standing Guard", "Through Wind and Weather", "Blessing of Earth", and the like.[3] Hitler's favorite painter was Adolf Ziegler and Hitler owned a number of his works. Landscape painting featured prominently in the Great German Art exhibition.[33] While drawing on German Romanticism traditions, it was to be firmly based on real landscape, Germans' Lebensraum, without religious moods.[34] Peasants were also popular images, reflecting a simple life in harmony with nature.[35] This art showed no sign of the mechanization of farm work.[36] The farmer labored by hand, with effort and struggle.[37] Not a single painting in the first exhibition showed urban or industrialized life, and only two in the exhibition in 1938.[38]
Nazi theory explicitly rejected "materialism", and therefore, despite the realistic treatment of images, "realism" was a seldom used term.[39] A painter was to create an ideal picture, for eternity.[39] The images of men, and still more of women, were heavily stereotyped,[40] with physical perfection required for the nude paintings.[41] This may have been the cause of there being very few anti-Semitic paintings; while such works as Um Haus and Hof, depicting a Jewish speculator dispossessing an elderly peasant couple exist, they are few, perhaps because the art was supposed to be on a higher plane.[42] Explicitly political paintings were more common but still very rare.[33] Heroic imagery, on the other hand, was common enough to be commented on by a critic: "The heroic element stands out. The worker, the farmer, the soldier are the themes .... Heroic subjects dominate over sentimental ones".[43]
With the advent of war, war paintings became far more common.[44] The images were romanticized, depicting heroic sacrifice and victory.[45] Still, landscapes predominated, and among the painters exempted from war service, all were noted for landscapes or other pacific subjects.[46] Even Hitler and Goebbels found the new paintings disappointing, although Goebbels tried to put a good face on it with the observation that they had cleared the field, and that these desperate times drew many talents into political life rather than cultural.[47] In a speech at the Great German Art Exhibition in Munich Hitler said in 1939:
The first goal of our new German creation of art [...] has surely been achieved. Analogous to the recovering of architectural art which began here in Munich, here also started the purification in the sphere of painting and sculpture, that maybe had been even more devastated. The whole swindle of a decadent or pathological trend-art has been swept away. A decent common level has been reached. And this means a lot. Only out of this can the truly creative genius arise."[48]
By 1938, nearly 16,000 works by German and non-German artists had been seized from German galleries and either sold abroad or destroyed.[49]
Sculpture
The monumental possibilities of sculpture offered greater material expression of the theories of Nazism. The Great German Art Exhibition promoted the genre of sculpture at the expense of painting.[50] As such, the nude male was the most common representation of the ideal Aryan; the artistic skill of Arno Breker elevated him to become the favourite sculptor of Adolf Hitler.[51][52] Josef Thorak was another official sculptor whose monumental style suited the image Nazi Germany wished to communicate to the world.[53] Nude females were also common, though they tended to be less monumental.[54] In both cases, the physical form of the ideal Nazi man and woman showed no imperfections.[41]
Music
Music was expected to be
Germany's urban centers in the 1920s and '30s were buzzing with
Music by non-German composers was tolerated if it was classically inspired,
There has been controversy over the use of certain composers' music by the Nazi regime, and whether that implicates the composer as implicitly Nazi. Composers such as Richard Strauss,
Musicologists of Nazi Germany
As the Nazi regime accrued power in 1933, musicologists were directed to rewrite the history of German music in order to accommodate Nazi mythology and ideology. Richard Wagner and Hans Pfitzner were now seen as composers who conceptualized a united order (Volksgemeinschaft) where music was an index of the German community. In a time of disintegration, Wagner and Pfitzner wanted to revitalize the country through music. In a book written about Hans Pfitzner and Wagner, published in Regensburg in 1939 followed not only the birth of contemporary musical parties, but also of political parties in Germany. The Wagner-Pfitzner stance contrasted ideas of other notable artists, such as Arnold Schoenberg and Theodor W. Adorno, who wanted music to be autonomous from politics, Nazi control and application. Although Wagner and Pfitzner predated Nazism, their sentiments and thoughts, Wagner's Gesamtkunstwerk, were appropriated by Hitler and his propagandists—notably Joseph Goebbels. According to Michael Meyer, "The very emphasis on rootedness and on tradition music underscored Nazi understanding of itself in a dialectic terms: old gods were mobilized against the false values of the immediate past to offer legitimacy to the epiphany of Adolf Hitler and the music representation of his realm."[citation needed]
Composers, librettists, educators, critics, and especially musicologists, through their public statements, intellectual writings, and journals contributed to the justification of a totalitarian blueprint to be implanted through nazification. All music was then composed for the occasions of Nazi pageantries, rallies, and conventions. Composers dedicated so called 'consecration fanfares,' inaugurations fanfares and flag songs to the Fuhrer. When the Fuhrer assumed power the Nazi revolution was immediately expressed in musicological journalism. Certain progressive journalism pertaining to modern music was purged. Journals that had been sympathetic to the ‘German viewpoint,’ entrenched in Wagnerian ideals, like the Zeitschrift für Musik and Die Musik, showed confidence in the new regime and affirmed the process of intertwining government policies with music. Joseph Goebbels used the Völkischer Beobachter, a journal that was disseminated to the general public in addition to elites and party officials, as an organ of Reich Culture. By the end of the 1930s the Mitteilungen der Reichsmusikkammer became another prominent journal that reflected the music policy, organizational and personnel changes in musical institutions.
In the early years of Nazi rule, the musicologists and musicians redirected the orientation of music, defining what was "German Music" and what was not. Nazi ideology was applied to the evaluation of musicians for hero status; musicians defined in the new German musical era were given titles of prophets, while their accomplishments and deeds were seen as direct accomplishments of the Nazi regime. The contribution of German musicologists led to the justification of Nazi power and a new German music culture in whole. The musicologists defined the greater German values that musicians would have to identify with, because their duty was to integrate music and Nazism in way that made them look inseparable. Nazi myth making and ideology was forced upon the new musical path of Germany rather than truly embedded in the rhetoric of German music.
Graphic design
The poster became an important medium for propaganda during this period. Combining text and bold graphics,
Literature
The Reich Chamber of Literature Reichsschriftstumskammer[67] Literature was under the jurisdiction of Goebbels's Ministry of Propaganda and Popular Enlightenment. According to Grunberger, "At the beginning of the war this department supervised no less than 2,500 publishing houses, 23,000 bookshops, 3,000 authors, 50 national literary prizes, 20,000 new books issued annually, and a total of 1 million titles constituting the available book market."[68] Germany was Europe's biggest producer of books—in terms both of total annual production and the number of individual new titles appearing each year.[69] In 1937, at 650 million RM, the average sales value of the books produced took third place in the statistics on goods, after coal and wheat.[70] The first Nazi literature commission set itself the goal of eradicating the literature of the 'System Period', as Weimar was contemptuously called, and of propagating volkisch-nationalist literature in the Nazis state.[71] Literature was recognized early on as an essential political tool in Nazi Germany, as virtually 100 percent of the German population was literate.[72] "The most widely-read-or displayed-book of the period was Hitler's Mein Kampf, a collection (according to Lion Feuchtwanger) of 164,000 offences against German grammar and syntax; by 1940, it was, with 6 million copies sold, the solitary front-runner in the German best-seller list, some 5 million copies ahead of Rainer Maria Rilke and others."[68]
Richard Grunberger says, "In 1936 literary criticism as hitherto understood was abolished; henceforth reviews followed a pattern: a synopsis of content studded with quotations, marginal comments on style, a calculation of the degree of concurrence with Nazi doctrine and a conclusion indicating approval or otherwise."[73]
The Nazis permitted much foreign literature to be read, in part because they believed that the writings of authors such as
Fronterlebnis (War as a Spiritual Experience)
This was one of the most popular themes during the interwar period. Writers celebrated the "heroics of front-line soldiers in [World War I], ... the thrill of combat and the sacredness of death when it is in the service of the fatherland."
Blut und Boden (Blood and Soil)
Novels in this theme often featured an instinctive and soil-bound peasant community that warded off alien outsiders who sought to destroy their way of life.[76] The most popular novel of this kind was
Historical ethnicity
Klaus Fischer says Nazi literature emphasized "Historic Ethnicity—that is, how a group of people defines itself in a process of historical growth. Writers tried to highlight prominent episodes in the history of the German people; they stressed the German mission for Europe, analyzed the immutable racial essence of Nordic man, and warned against subversive or un-German forces—the Jews, Communists, or Western liberals."[76] Prominent writers included: Erwin Guido Kolbenheyer (Die Bauhutte: Elemente einer Metaphysik der Gerenwart; The building hut: Elements of a contemporary metaphysics, 1925), Alfred Rosenberg (Der Mythus des 20.Jahrhunderts; The myth of the twentieth century, 1930), Josef Weinheber, Hans Grimm (Volk ohne Raum; People without living space, 1926), and Joseph Goebbels (Michael, 1929).
Architecture
Hitler favored hugeness, especially in architecture, as a means of impressing the masses. "The Reich Film Chamber (Reichsfilmkammer) controlled the lively German film industry, while a Film Credit Bank (also under Goebbels' control) centralized the financial aspects of film production."[79] Approximately 1,363 feature pictures were made during Nazi rule (208 of these were banned after World War II for containing Nazi Propaganda).[80] Every film made in Nazi Germany (including features, shorts, newsreels, and documentaries) had to be passed by Joseph Goebbels himself before they could be shown in public.[81]
Mass culture was less stringently regulated than high culture, possibly because the authorities feared the consequences of too heavy-handed interference in popular entertainment.[82] Thus, until the outbreak of the war, most Hollywood films could be screened, including It Happened One Night, San Francisco, and Gone with the Wind. While performance of atonal music was banned, the prohibition of jazz was less strictly enforced. Benny Goodman and Django Reinhardt were popular, and leading English and American jazz bands continued to perform in major cities until the war; thereafter, dance bands officially played "swing" rather than the banned jazz.[83]
A film premiered in Berlin on November 28, 1940, which was clearly a tool used to promote Nazi Ideology. The release of the film Theatre and cinema
The filmmaker, Fritz Hippler, used numerous visual techniques to portray Jews as a filthy, degenerate, and disease-infested population. Purporting to provide the viewer with an in-depth look at the Jewish lifestyle, the film showed staged scenes of Łódź (soon to be ghetto) with the presence of flies and rats, to suggest a dangerous-to-life area of Europe, which, in turn, only perpetuated underlying superstition and fear to the viewer. To add to this staged and exaggerated scene of filth was a warning released by officials of The Reich: an advisory that Łódź is an area of widespread infectious disease. The film director utilized racist cinema to bolster the illusion that Jews were parasites and corruptors of German culture.[85]
Hippler made use of voice-overs to cite hate speeches or fictitious statistics of the Jewish population. He also borrowed numerous scenes from other films, and presented them out of context from the original: for example, a scene of a Jewish businessman in the United States hiding money was accompanied with a bogus claim that Jewish men get taxed more than non-Jews in the United States, which was used to insinuate that Jews withhold money from the government. Through the repetitive use of side angles of Jewish people, who were filmed (without knowledge) while looking over their shoulder at the camera, Der ewige Jude created a visual suggesting a shifty and conspiring nature of Jews. Yet another propaganda technique was superposition. Hippler superimposed the Star of David onto the tops of world capitals, insinuating an illusion of Jewish world domination.[86]
Der ewige Jude is notorious for its anti-Semitism and its use of cinema in the fabrication of propaganda, to satisfy Hitler and to embrace the Germanic ideology that would fuel a nation in support of an obsessive leader.[87] "On the lighter side, a Jewish actor named Leo Reuss fled Germany to Vienna, where he dyed his hair and beard and became a specialist in 'Aryan' roles, which were greatly praised by the Nazis. Having had his fun, Reuss revealed he was a Jew, signed a contract with MGM, and departed for the United States".[88]
Führermuseum
Apart from auctioning art that was to be purged from Germany's collection, Germany's art that was considered as especially favourable by Hitler were to be combined to create a massive art museum in Hitler's hometown of Linz, Austria for his own personal collection. The museum to-be by 1945 had thousands of pieces of furniture, paintings, sculptures and several other forms of fine craft. The museum was to be known as the "Führermuseum".
By the late spring of 1940 art collectors and museum curators were in a race against time to move thousands of pieces of collectables into hiding, or out of soon-to-be-occupied territory where it would be vulnerable to confiscation by German officials—either for themselves or for Hitler. On June 5, a particularly important movement of thousands of paintings occurred, which included the
By the end of June, Hitler controlled most of the European continent. As people were detained, their possessions were confiscated; if they were lucky enough to escape, their belongings left behind or in storage became the property of Germany. By the end of August, officials of the Reich were granted permission to access any shipping containers and remove any desirable items inside. As well as looting goods that were to be shipped out of occupied territories, Arthur Seyss-Inquart authorized the removal of any objects found in houses during the invasion, after which a long and thorough search was in effect for European treasures.[92]
Artwork became an important commodity in the German economy: no one in German or axis-controlled countries was allowed to invest outside of the new Germanic-controlled territory, which in turn created a self-contained market. With few options available for investments, art was of great importance to anyone with cash, including the Führer himself, as a safe form of investment, and even in trade for the lives of others. At the height of trading in 1943, art was used by Pieter de Boers, the head of the Dutch association of art dealers and the largest art seller to Germans in the Netherlands, in the exchange of the release of his Jewish employee. Demand began to increase dramatically, forcing prices to rise, and only furthering the desire to discover hidden treasures within occupied territory.[93]
As exploration continued within
As confiscations began to pile up in massive quantities, the items filled the Louvre, and forced Reich officials to use the
Hitler also ordered the confiscation of French works of art owned by the state and the cities. Reich officials decided what was to stay in France, and what was to be sent to Linz. Further orders from Hitler also included the return of artworks that were looted by Napoleon from Germany in the past. Napoleon is considered the unquestioned record holder in the act of confiscating art.[96]
Individual NSDAP artists
According to Klaus Fischer, "Many German writers, artists, musicians, and scientists not only stayed but flourished under the Nazis, including some famous names such as Werner Heisenberg, Otto Hahn, Max Planck, Gerhart Hauptmann, Gottfried Benn, Martin Heidegger, and many others".[97]
In September 1944, the
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Official sculptors
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Writers
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Actors and actresses
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Degenerate art forms
"The swathe these four apocalyptic Norsemen cut through Germany's stored-up artistic treasure has been estimated at upwards of 16,000 paintings, drawings, etchings and sculptures: 1,000 pieces by
The term Entartung (or "degeneracy") had gained popularity in Germany by the late 19th century when the critic and author
Germany lost "thousands of intellectuals, artists, and academics, including many luminaries of Weimar culture and science", according to Raffael Scheck.[110] Fischer says that "as soon as Hitler seized power, many intellectuals rushed to the exits."[111]
Proscribed literature
According to Pauley, "literature was the first branch of the arts to be affected by the Nazis."[112] "As early as April 1933, the Nazis had compiled a long blacklist of left, democratic, and Jewish authors which included several famous authors of the nineteenth century."[112] Large scale book burnings were staged across Germany in May 1933. Two thousand five hundred writers, including Nobel prize winners and writers of worldwide best sellers, left the country voluntarily or under duress, and were replaced by people without international reputations."[112]
In June 1933, the Reichsstelle zur Forderung des deutschen Schrifttums (Reich Office for the Promotion of German Literature) was established.[71] Jan-Pieter Barbian says, "On the level of the state, the Reich Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda and the Reich Chamber of Literature had to share responsibility for literary policy with the new Reich Ministry of Science, Education, and Public Instruction and the Foreign Office."[113] "The full repertoire—which also included the consistent removal of Jews and political opponents—was brought to bear during the twelve years of Nazi rule: on writers and publishers; book wholesaling; the retail, door-to-door, and mail-order book libraries, public libraries, and research libraries."[113]
Between November 1933 and January 1934, publishers were informed "that supplying and distributing the works named is undesirable for national and cultural reasons and must therefore cease."
"During World War II, 1939–1945, identical indexes of forbidden literature were applied by the Nazis in all occupied countries as well as in Germany's allied countries: Denmark, Norway, France, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Poland, Yugoslavia, Greece, and of course, Germany."[118]
Book burnings
Described as a cleaning action or Sauberung,
"The blind writer Helen Keller published an Open Letter to German Students: 'You may burn my books and the books of the best minds in Europe, but the ideas those books contain have passed through millions of channels and will go on.'"[121]
Degenerate Art exhibition
Modern artworks were purged from German museums. Over 5,000 works were initially seized, including 1,052 by
External videos | |
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Art in Nazi Germany, Smarthistory[124] Painting by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, a so-called degenerated artist |
Coinciding with the Entartete Kunst exhibition, the Große Deutsche Kunstausstellung (Great German art exhibition) made its premiere amid much pageantry. This exhibition, held at the palatial Haus der deutschen Kunst (House of German Art), displayed the work of officially approved artists such as Arno Breker and Adolf Wissel. At the end of four months Entartete Kunst had attracted over two million visitors, nearly three and a half times the number that visited the nearby Grosse deutsche Kunstausstellung.[9]
The Degenerate Art Exhibition included works by some of the great international names—
Individual artists forbidden under Nazi rule
Banned in German-occupied Europe and/or living in exile:
See also
- Allach porcelain
- Book burnings
- Heroic realism
- Nazi chic
- Nazi control of music
- Nazi propaganda
- Reich Chamber of Culture
- Weimar culture
- Wolfgang Herrmann
Notes
- ^ Grosshans 1983, p. 87
- ^ ISBN 0-393-02030-4
- ^ a b c Adam 1992, p. 110.
- ^ Grosshans 1983, p. 86
- ^ Barron 1991, p. 83
- ISBN 1-58567-345-5
- ISBN 0-393-02030-4
- ^ a b Nicholas.(1995).p.20
- ^ a b Adam 1992, pp. 124–125.
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 29.
- ISBN 0-393-02030-4
- ^ a b Baez, 2004 pp. 211
- ^ a b Adam 1992, p. 53.
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 56.
- ^ a b Document No. 2030-PS. Accessed Feb. 2014. Yale Law School.
- ^ Document No. 2078-PS. Accessed Feb. 2014. Yale Law School.
- ^ Document No. 1708-PS. Accessed Feb. 2014. Fordham University: The Jesuit University of New York.
- ^ "Haunting MoMA: The Forgotten Story of 'Degenerate' Dealer Alfred Flechtheim". Observer. 2012-02-15. Retrieved 2021-04-24.
- ^ ""Aryanization"". encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 2021-04-24.
- OCLC 505419574.
- OCLC 1090063439.
- OCLC 756509628.
- OCLC 212204519.
- ^ Conducting Research at the National Archives into Art Looting, Recovery, and Restitution by Ernest Latham, US National Archives
- ^ Nicholas 1994, p. 23.
- ^ Nicholas 1994, pp. 10–23.
- ^ Nicholas 1994, p. 3.
- ^ Nicholas 1994, p. 4.
- ^ Nicholas 1994, p. 5.
- ^ Adam 1992, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Adam 1992, pp. 29–32.
- ^ Fischer 1997, p.368
- ^ ISBN 1-58567-345-5
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 130.
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 132.
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 133.
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 134.
- ISBN 0-03-076435-1
- ^ a b Adam 1992, p. 138.
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 150.
- ^ a b Susan Sontag",Fascinating Fascism"
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 172.
- ^ The Greater German Art Exhibitions Archived January 31, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 157.
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 162.
- ISBN 1-58567-345-5
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 119.
- ISBN 3-927068-00-4. Original Text: "... das erste Ziel unseres neuen deutschen Kunstschaffens [...] ohne Zweifel schon heute erreicht [sei]. So wie von dieser Stadt München die baukünstlerische Gesundung ihren Ausgang nahm, hat hier auch vor drei Jahren die Reinigung eingesetzt auf dem vielleicht noch mehr verwüsteten Gebiet der Plastik und der Malerei. Der ganze Schwindelbetrieb einer dekadenten oder krankhaften, verlogenen Modekunst ist hinweggefegt. Ein anständiges allgemeines Niveau wurde erreicht. Und dieses ist sehr viel. Denn aus ihm erst können sich die wahrhaft schöpferischen Genies erheben." (07/14/1939)
- ^ Pauley 1997, p. 106
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 177.
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 178.
- ^ Caroline Fetscher, "Why Mention Arno Breker Today?", The Atlantic Times, August 2006. Archived 2012-02-11 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Art: Bigger Than Life". time.com.
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 188.
- ^ Fischer 1997, p. 371.
- ^ Eyerman & Jamison 1998.
- ^ Levi 1994.
- ISBN 019802634X. Retrieved 2013-03-23.
- ^ a b Levi 1994, p. 217.
- ^ Potter 1992.
- ^ Kater 1999; Kater 2000.
- ^ Newton, Gerald, 2003, "Deutsche Schrift: The Demise and Rise of German Black Letter", German Life and Letters, 56:2 (abstract).[dead link]
- ^ Hollis 2001, pp. 66-67
- ^ a b eye magazine, "Designing heroes"
- ^ a b "Nazi Propaganda and the Myth of 'Aryan' Invincibility | Color Photos | LIFE.com". Archived from the original on 2014-11-03. Retrieved 2014-10-29.
- ^ "Typotheque: The Swastika: Constructing The Symbol by Steven Heller". www.typotheque.com. 29 November 2004.
- ^ Mosse 1966, p. 135
- ^ a b Grunberger 1971, p. 361
- ^ Barbian 2010, p. 7
- ^ Barbian 2010, p.8
- ^ a b Barbian 2010, pp. 27-28
- ^ Pauley 1997, p. 101
- ^ Grunberger 1971, p. 357
- ^ Grunberger 1971, p. 358
- ^ Fischer 1997, pp. 368
- ^ a b c d Fischer 1997, pp. 368–369
- ^ Pauley 1997, p.106
- ^ Sivers, Desnoyers and Stow 2012, p.1008
- ^ Mosse 1966, p. 139
- ^ Hull 1969, p. 8
- ^ Hull 1969, p. 10
- ^ Laqueur 1996, p. 73
- ^ Laqueur 1996, pp. 73–75
- ^ Hansen 2009, pp. 80, 81.
- ^ Hansen 2009, pp. 80, 83.
- ^ Hansen 2009, pp. 84–86.
- ^ Hansen 2009.
- ^ a b Hull 1969, p. 127
- ^ "Art Looting Intelligence Unit (ALIU) Reports 1945-1946 and ALIU Red Flag Names List and Index". www.lootedart.com. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2021-04-24.
Fabiani, Martin. Paris, 26 ave Matignon. Corsican adventurer, gigolo and race track tout, who married the daughter of a wealthy banker. Became a friend and protege of Ambrose Vollard, who named him an executor of the estate, a large part of which he still owns. With Dequoy, the arch-collaborationist of the Paris deler milieu. Received looted objects from the ERR by undetermined means. Has personally returned 24 pictures to Paul Rosenberg, from whose collection they were looted by the ERR. When last interviewed, stated that his relationship with Rosenberg was now (January 1946) on a 'new basis' because they had come to an agreement which concerned Fabiani's property in the USA. Indicted by the French Government for embezzlement of the Wertheim collection and for attempts against the security of the state. In January 1946 fined FF 146,000,000 (Seine Tribunal, Judge Frapier).
- ^ Nicholas 1994, p. 93.
- OCLC 649080564.
- ^ Nicholas 1994, p. 102.
- ^ Nicholas 1994, p. 103.
- ^ Nicholas 1994, p. 124.
- ^ Nicholas 1994, pp. 125–126, 128–129.
- ^ Nicholas 1994, p. 120.
- ^ Fischer 1997, pp.374-375
- ^ Documentary Nazis: The Occult Conspiracy, end credits.
- ^ "Der Bannerträger ("The Standard Bearer"), by Hubert Lanzinger, circa 1935". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
- ^ Barbian 2010, p. 367
- ^ Dégh, Linda (1979). "Grimm’s 'Household Tales' and Its Place in the Household: The Social Relevance of a Controversial Classic". Western Folklore 38 (2): 83–103.
- ^ Hull 1969, p. 90
- ^ Grunberger 1971, p. 423
- ^ Adam 1992, p. 52.
- ^ a b Baez 2004, p. 211
- ^ Grunberger 1971, p. 424
- ^ Grunberger 1971, p.425
- ISBN 9780415529969,
- ^ Barron 1991, p. 26
- ^ Scheck, Raffael.(2008)
- ^ Fischer 1997, p. 364
- ^ a b c Pauley, p.109
- ^ a b Barbian 2010, p. 9
- ^ Barbian 2010, p. 29
- ^ a b c Barbian 2010, p. 30
- ^ Fischer 1997, p.365
- ^ a b Fischer 1997, p. 366
- ^ Karolides 2011, p.152
- ^ a b Baez 2011, pp. 209-210
- ^ Baez 2011, p. 208
- ^ Baez 2011, p. 211
- ^ Adam 1992, pp. 121–122.
- ^ Nicholas 1994, p. 22.
- ^ "Art in Nazi Germany". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved March 4, 2013.
- ^ Burns, Lucy (6 November 2013). "Why Hitler put 'degenerate' art on show". BBC News.
- ^ a b c Hull 1969, p. 128
Further reading
- ISBN 0-8109-1912-5.
- Baez, Fernando. (2004). A Universal History of the Destruction of Books: From Ancient Sumer to Modern Iraq. New York: Atlas & Co.
- Barron, Stephanie, ed. (1991). 'Degenerate Art:' The Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-3653-4
- Barbian, Jan-Pieter. (2010). The Politics of Literature in Nazi Germany: Books in the Media Dictatorship. New York: Bloomsbury Academic.
- Clinefelter, Joan L., (2005), Artists for the Reich: Culture and Race from Weimar to Nazi Germany, Oxford: Berg Publishers
- Davidson, Mortimer G. (1991). Art in Germany 1933–1945: Painting
- Davidson, Mortimer G. (1992). Art in Germany 1933–1945: Sculpture
- Davidson, Mortimer G. (1995). Art in Germany 1933–1945: Architecture
- Dennis, David D. (2002) "Honor your german masters: The use and abuse of "classical" composers in nazi propaganda". Loyola University Chicago: Journal of Political and Military Sociology 273–295
- Eyerman, Ron and Andrew Jamison (1998). Music and Social Movements: Mobilizing Traditions of the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Fischer, Klaus P. (1997). Nazi Germany: A New History. New York: The Continuum Publishing Company.
- Gay, Peter. (1968). Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider. New York: Harper and Row Publishers.
- Grosshans, Henry (1983). Hitler and the Artists. New York: Holmes & Meyer. p. 86. ISBN 0-8419-0746-3.
- Grunberger, Richard(1971) The 12 Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi Germany 1933–1945. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston of Canada Ltd.
- Hansen, Jennifer (2009). "The Art and Science of Reading Faces: Strategies of Racist Cinema in the Third Reich". Shofar. 28 (1): 80–103. JSTOR 10.5703/shofar.28.1.80.
- Hollis, R. (2001). Graphic design: a concise history. World of art. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20347-4
- Hull, David Stewart. (1969) Film in the Third Reich. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
- Karolides, Bald and Sova. (2011). Banned Books: Censorship Histories of World Literature. New York: Checkmark Books.
- Kater, Michael (1999). The Twisted Muse: Musicians and Their Music in the Third Reich. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Kater, Michael (2000). Composers of the Nazi Era: Eight Portraits. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Kater, Michael and Albrecht Reithmuller, ed. (1992). Music and Nazism; Art under Tyranny. Berlin: Freie Universität Berlin. ISBN 3-89007-516-9
- Kraus, Carl; Obermair, Hannes (2019). Mythen der Diktaturen. Kunst in Faschismus und Nationalsozialismus – Miti delle dittature. Arte nel fascismo e nazionalsocialismo. Landesmuseum für Kultur- und Landesgeschichte Schloss Tirol. ISBN 978-88-95523-16-3.
- ISBN 0-19-509245-7
- Levi, Erik (1994). Music in the Third Reich. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-10381-6.
- Mangan, James Anthony, ed. Shaping the superman: Fascist body as political icon – Aryan Fascism (Routledge, 2014).
- Meyer, Michael (1975). The nazi musicologist as myth maker in the third reich. Journal of Contemporary History. 10(4), pp. 649–665
- Michaud, Eric (2004). The Cult of Art in Nazi Germany, translated by Janet Lloyd. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4327-4.
- Modern History Sourcebook: The 25 points 1920: An Early Nazi Program, (Document No. 1708-PS of the Nuremberg Trials). Fordham University: The Jesuit University of New York. Accessed August 14, 2017.
- Mosse, George L.(1966). Nazi Culture: Intellectual, Cultural and Social Life in the Third Reich. New York: Grosset and Dunlap.
- Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression Volume IV Document No. 2030-PS. Yale Law School. Accessed 11, Feb. 2014. www.avalon.law.yale.edu
- Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression Volume IV Document No. 2078-PS. Yale Law School. Accessed 11 Feb. 2014. www.avalon.law.yale.edu
- ISBN 0-8032-8367-9
- ISBN 978-0-679-40069-1.
- Pauley, Bruce F. (1997). Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century. Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc.
- Petropoulos, Jonathan. Art as politics in the Third Reich (UNC Press Books, 1999) online.
- Potter, Pamela (1992). "Strauss and the National Socialists: The Debate and Its Relevance". in Richard Strauss: New Perspectives on the Composer and His Work (Sources of Music & Their Interpretation). ed. Bryan Gilliam. Durham: Duke University Press.
- Rentschler, Eric (1996). The Ministry of Illusion: Nazi Cinema and Its Afterlife. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-57640-7.
- Scheck, Raffael. (2008). Germany, 1871–1945: A Concise History Oxford: Oxford International Publishers Ltd
- Schoeps, Karl-Heinz. Literature and film in the Third Reich (Camden House, 2004). online
- Sivers, Desnoyers and Stow. (2012). Patterns of World History: Since 1750. New York:Oxford University Press.
- Steinweis, Alan E. "The professional, social, and economic dimensions of Nazi cultural policy: the case of the Reich Theater Chamber." German Studies Review 13.3 (1990): 441–459. online
- Steinweis, Alan E. (1993). Art, Ideology, and Economics in Nazi Germany: The Reich Chambers of Music, Theater, and the Visual Arts. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4607-4
- Thoms, Robert: The Artists in the Great German Art Exhibition Munich 1937–1944, Volume I – painting and printing. Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-937294-01-8.
- Thoms, Robert: The Artists in the Great German Art Exhibition Munich 1937–1944, Volume II – Sculpturing. Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-937294-02-5.
External links
- GDK Research, research platform for images of the Great German Art Exhibitions 1937–1944 in Munich
- Complete catalogs of all the Great German Art Exhibitions 1937–1944
- Nazi Approved Art
- Nationalsocialist Realism
- Nazi Political Art
- Nazi War Art: 1940–1944 Archived 2018-07-11 at the Wayback Machine
- Nazi Military Paintings
- Hitler's Ideals Regarding Art
- Nazi & Soviet Art
- Works of Art from Nazi Germany
- Presentation of many paintings of the era