German art

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Late Gothic Marienaltar by Tilman Riemenschneider, 1505-1508, Herrgottskirche, Creglingen

German art has a long and distinguished tradition in the visual arts, from the earliest known work of figurative art to its current output of contemporary art.

Germany has only been united into a single state since the 19th century, and defining its borders has been a notoriously difficult and painful process. For earlier periods German art often effectively includes that produced in German-speaking regions including Austria, Alsace and much of Switzerland, as well as largely German-speaking cities or regions to the east of the modern German borders.

Although tending to be neglected relative to Italian and French contributions from the point of view of the

Western art, especially Celtic art, Carolingian art and Ottonian art. From the development of Romanesque art, France and Italy began to lead developments for the rest of the Middle Ages
, but the production of an increasingly wealthy Germany remained highly important.

The

Modernist movements following the collapse of Academic art
has been increasing important.

Prehistory to Late Antiquity

Venus of Hohle Fels, 35,000 to 40,000 BP, the oldest known figurative work of art (true height 6 cm (2.4 in))

The area of modern Germany is rich in finds of prehistoric art, including the Venus of Hohle Fels. This appears to be the oldest undisputed example of Upper Paleolithic art and figurative sculpture of the human form in general, from over 35,000 years BP, which was only discovered in 2008;[1] the better-known Venus of Willendorf (24–22,000 BP) comes from a little way over the Austrian border. The spectacular finds of Bronze Age golden hats are centred on Germany, as was the "central" form of Urnfield culture, and Hallstatt culture.

Reconstruction of the Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave, Stuttgart

In the

oppida towns like Glauberg, Manching and Heuneburg. [citation needed
]

After lengthy wars, the Roman Empire settled its frontiers in Germania with the Limes Germanicus to include much of the south and west of modern Germany. The German provinces produced art in provincial versions of Roman styles, but centres there, as over the Rhine in France, were large-scale producers of fine Ancient Roman pottery, exported all over the Empire. [citation needed] Rheinzabern was one of the largest, which has been well-excavated and has a dedicated museum.[2]

Non-Romanized areas of the later Roman period fall under Migration Period art, notable for metalwork, especially jewellery (the largest pieces apparently mainly worn by men). [citation needed]

Middle Ages

Carolingian art

Main article: Carolingian art
Gem-encrusted cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, 870

German medieval art really begins with the

Lorraine and the Abbey of Saint Gall in modern Switzerland came to rival them. The Drogo Sacramentary and Folchard Psalter are among the manuscripts they produced.[3]

No Carolingian

Papacy, may have contributed to the strong pro-image position expressed in the Libri Carolini, which set out the position on images held with little variation by the Western Church for the rest of the Middle Ages, and beyond.[4]

Ottonian art

Main article: Ottonian art
Reichenau School
, achieves monumentality in a small scale. 1000–1020.

Under the next Ottonian dynasty, whose core territory approximated more closely to modern Germany, Austria, and German-speaking Switzerland, Ottonian art was mainly a product of the large monasteries, especially Reichenau which was the leading Western artistic centre in the second half of the 10th century. The Reichenau style uses simplified and patterned shapes to create strongly expressive images, far from the classical aspirations of Carolingian art, and looking forward to the Romanesque. The wooden Gero Cross of 965–970 in Cologne Cathedral is both the oldest and the finest early medieval near life-size crucifix figure; art historians had been reluctant to credit the records giving its date until they were confirmed by dendrochronology in 1976.[5] As in the rest of Europe, metalwork was still the most prestigious form of art, in works like the jewelled Cross of Lothair, made about 1000, probably in Cologne.[citation needed]

Maria Laach
Abbey

Romanesque art

Main article: Romanesque art

Romanesque art was the first artistic movement to encompass the whole of Western Europe, though with regional varieties. Germany was a central part of the movement, though German Romanesque architecture made rather less use of sculpture than that of France. With increasing prosperity massive churches were built in cities all over Germany, no longer just those patronized by the Imperial circle.[6]

Gothic art

Main article: Gothic art

The French invented the

tomb monuments have survived from Germany than France or England. Romanesque and Early Gothic churches had wall paintings in local versions of international styles, of which few artists' names are known.[8]

Three Foolish Virgins, Magdeburg Cathedral, c. 1250

The court of the

Meister Bertram in Hamburg, and later Stefan Lochner in Cologne. Hamburg was one of the cities in the Hanseatic League, when the League was at height of its prosperity. Bertram was succeeded in the city by artists such as Master Francke, the Master of the Malchin Altar, Hans Bornemann, Hinrik Funhof and Wilm Dedeke who survived into the Renaissance period. Hanseatic artists painted commissions for Baltic cities in Scandinavia and the modern Baltic states to the east. In the south, the Master of the Bamberg Altar is the first significant painter based in Nuremberg, while the Master of Heiligenkreuz and then Michael Pacher worked in Austria. [citation needed
]

Like that of Pacher, the workshop of

Virgin of Sorrows, many of which would spread across Europe and remain popular until the Baroque and, in popular religious imagery, beyond. Indeed "Late Gothic Baroque" is a term sometimes used to describe hyper-decorated and emotional 15th-century art, above all in Germany.[10]

Martin Schongauer, who worked in Alsace in the last part of the 15th century, was the culmination of late Gothic German painting, with a sophisticated and harmonious style, but he increasingly spent his time producing engravings, for which national and international channels of distribution had developed, so that his prints were known in Italy and other countries. His predecessors were the Master of the Playing Cards and Master E. S., both also from the Upper Rhine region.[11] German conservatism is shown in the late use of gold backgrounds, still used by many artists well into the 15th century.[12]

Renaissance painting and prints

Heller altar by Albrecht Dürer

The concept of the Northern Renaissance or German Renaissance is somewhat confused by the continuation of the use of elaborate Gothic ornament until well into the 16th century, even in works that are undoubtedly Renaissance in their treatment of the human figure and other respects. Classical ornament had little historical resonance in much of Germany, but in other respects Germany was very quick to follow developments, especially in adopting printing with movable type, a German invention that remained almost a German monopoly for some decades, and was first brought to most of Europe, including France and Italy, by Germans.[citation needed]

Melencolia I, 1514, engraving by Albrecht Dürer

Printmaking by woodcut and engraving (perhaps another German invention) was already more developed in Germany and the Low Countries than anywhere else, and the Germans took the lead in developing book illustrations, typically of a relatively low artistic standard, but seen all over Europe, with the woodblocks often being lent to printers of editions in other cities or languages. The greatest artist of the German Renaissance, Albrecht Dürer, began his career as an apprentice to a leading workshop in Nuremberg, that of Michael Wolgemut, who had largely abandoned his painting to exploit the new medium. Dürer worked on the most extravagantly illustrated book of the period, the Nuremberg Chronicle, published by his godfather Anton Koberger, Europe's largest printer-publisher at the time.[13]

After completing his apprenticeship in 1490, Dürer travelled in Germany for four years, and Italy for a few months, before establishing his own workshop in Nuremberg. He rapidly became famous all over Europe for his energetic and balanced woodcuts and engravings, while also painting. Though retaining a distinctively German style, his work shows strong Italian influence, and is often taken to represent the start of the German Renaissance in visual art, which for the next forty years replaced the Netherlands and France as the area producing the greatest innovation in Northern European art. Dürer supported

Protestant Reformation.[13]

The Crucifixion, central panel of the Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grünewald

Dürer died in 1528, before it was clear that the split of the Reformation had become permanent, but his pupils of the following generation were unable to avoid taking sides. Most leading German artists became Protestants, but this deprived them of painting most religious works, previously the mainstay of artists' revenue.

Calvinism, and religious works for public display virtually ceased to be produced in Protestant areas. Presumably largely because of this, the development of German art had virtually ceased by about 1550, but in the preceding decades German artists had been very fertile in developing alternative subjects to replace the gap in their order books. Lucas Cranach the Younger, apart from portraits, developed a format of thin vertical portraits of provocative nudes, given classical or Biblical titles.[14]

Lying somewhat outside these developments is Matthias Grünewald, who left very few works, but whose masterpiece, his Isenheim Altarpiece (completed 1515), has been widely regarded as the greatest German Renaissance painting since it was restored to critical attention in the 19th century. It is an intensely emotional work that continues the German Gothic tradition of unrestrained gesture and expression, using Renaissance compositional principles, but all in that most Gothic of forms, the multi-winged triptych.[15]

Danube School in southern Germany

The

witches in a number of enigmatic prints.[17]

Darmstadt Madonna, with donor portraits, oil painting by Hans Holbein the Younger,[18] on a Holbein carpet, 1525–26 and 1528. Oil and tempera on limewood, Würth Collection, Schwäbisch Hall.

Dance of Death relate to the works of the Little Masters, a group of printmakers who specialized in very small and highly detailed engravings for bourgeois collectors, including many erotic subjects.[19]

The outstanding achievements of the first half of the 16th century were followed by several decades with a remarkable absence of noteworthy German art, other than accomplished portraits that never rival the achievement of Holbein or Dürer. The next significant German artists worked in the rather artificial style of

Thirty Years War and become painter at the Polish court. Adam Elsheimer, the most influential German artist in the 17th century, spent his whole mature career in Italy, where he began by working for another émigré Hans Rottenhammer. Both produced highly finished cabinet paintings, mostly on copper, with classical themes and landscape backgrounds. [citation needed
]

Gothic and Renaissance sculpture

Wessobrunner stucco at Schussenried Abbey
Meissen porcelain figures, c. 1740, 1744, 1735, modelled by Johann Joachim Kändler

In Catholic parts of South Germany the Gothic tradition of wood carving continued to flourish until the end of the 18th century, adapting to changes in style through the centuries. Veit Stoss (d. 1533), Tilman Riemenschneider (d.1531) and Peter Vischer the Elder (d. 1529) were Dürer's contemporaries, and their long careers covered the transition between the Gothic and Renaissance periods, although their ornament often remained Gothic even after their compositions began to reflect Renaissance principles.[21]

Two and a half centuries later,

Johann Joachim Kaendler of the Meissen factory in Dresden, but the best work of Franz Anton Bustelli for the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory in Munich is often considered the greatest achievement of 18th-century porcelain.[22]

17th to 19th-century painting

Baroque, Rococo and Neoclassicism

The Fall of Phaeton by Johann Liss
Gottlieb Schick, Frau von Cotta, 1802

Hofburg, had both moved to Vienna as students and stayed there.[24]

landscapes, concentrating on mountain views, despite spending much of his career in Rome. [citation needed
]

Danzig, and at least partly identified as Polish, although he only spoke German and French. His paintings and hundreds of prints, book illustrations and political cartoons are an invaluable visual record of the everyday life and the increasingly complex mentality of Enlightenment Germany, and its emerging Nationalism.[26] The Swiss-born Anton Graff was a prolific portraitist in Dresden, who painted literary figures as well as the court. The Tischbein family dynasty were solid all-rounders who covered most of the 18th century between them, as did the Zick family, initially mainly painters of grand Baroque ceilings, who were still active in the 20th century in the person of the illustrator Alexander Zick.[27] Both the Asam brothers, and Johann Baptist Zimmermann and his brother, were able between them to provide a complete service for commissions for churches and palaces, designing the building and executing the stucco and wall-paintings. The combined effect of all the elements of these buildings in South Germany, Austria and Bohemia, especially their interiors, represent some of the most complete and extreme realizations of the Baroque aspiration to overwhelm the viewer with the "radiant fairy world of the nobleman's dwelling", or the "foretaste of the glories of Paradise" in the case of churches.[28]

The earliest German

Akademie der Künste founded in Berlin in 1696, and through the next two centuries a number of other cities established their own institutions, in parallel with developments in other European nations. In Germany the uncertain market for art in a country divided into a multitude of small states meant that significant German artists have been to the present day more likely to accept teaching posts in the academies and their successor institutions than their equivalents in England or France have been. In general German academies imposed a particular style less rigidly than was for long the case in Paris, London, Moscow or elsewhere.[citation needed
]

Writing about art

Anton von Maron, Portrait of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, 1768

The Enlightenment period saw German writers becoming leading theorists and critics of art, led by

Laocoön Group occasioned a response by Lessing. Goethe had tried to train as an artist, and his landscape sketches show "occasional flashes of emotion in the presence of nature which are quite isolated in the period".[29]

The emergence of art as a major subject of philosophical speculation was solidified by the appearance of

Hegel's Lectures on Aesthetics. In the following century, German universities were the first to teach art history as an academic subject, beginning the leading position that Germany (and Austria) was to occupy in the study of art history until the dispersal of scholars abroad in the Nazi period. Johann Gottfried Herder championed what he identified in the Gothic and Dürer as specifically Germanic styles, beginning an argument over the proper models for a German artist against the so-called "Tyranny of Greece over Germany" that would last nearly two centuries.[30]

Romanticism and the Nazarenes

Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer above the Sea of Fog (1818)

philologist), whose later prints show figures almost swallowed up by gigantic vegetation.[33]

Johann Friedrich Overbeck of the Nazarene movement, Italia und Germania

The

Eberhard Wächter was later associated with the group. Unlike the strong support given to the Pre-Raphaelites by the dominant art critic of the day, John Ruskin, Goethe was dismissive of the Nazarenes: "This is the first case in the history of art when real talents have taken the fancy to form themselves backwards by retreating into their mother's womb, and thus found a new epoch in art."[34]

Led by the Nazarene Schadow, son of the sculptor, the

Düsseldorf school was a group of artists who painted mostly landscapes, and who studied at, or were influenced by the Düsseldorf Academy, founded in 1767. The academy's influence grew in the 1830s and 1840s, and it had many American students, several of whom became associated with the Hudson River School.[35]

Carl Begas, 1808, celebrating domesticity in Biedermeier
style

Naturalism and beyond

Zimmerbild
or "portrait" of an empty room, became a popular form.

Franz Stuck
(1873) Sünde (Sin)

In the second half of the 19th century a number of styles developed, paralleling trends in other European counties, though the lack of a dominant capital city probably contributed to even more diversity of styles than in other countries.[37]

and of Greek painting, after Greeks like Georgios Jakobides studied under him.[citation needed] Piloty's most influential pupil was Wilhelm Leibl. Being the head of the so called Leibl-Circle, an informal group of artists with a non-academic approach to art, he had a great impact on Realism in Germany.[38]

Darmstadt Artists' Colony, Darmstadt, Germany, by Joseph Maria Olbrich
(1900)

The

Les Nabis and in some ways looked forward to Art Nouveau or the Jugendstil ("Youth Style") as it is known in German.[40] Franz von Stuck and Max Klinger are the leading German Symbolist painters.[citation needed
]

20th century

Rehe im Walde ("Roe deer in the forest") by Franz Marc, 1914

Even more than in other countries, German art in the early 20th century developed through a number of loose groups and movements, many covering other artistic media as well, and often with a specific political element, as with the Arbeitsrat für Kunst and November Group, both formed in 1918. In 1922 The November Group, the Dresden Secession, Das Junge Rheinland, and several other progressive groups formed a "Cartel of advanced artistic groups in Germany" (Kartell fortschrittlicher Künstlergruppen in Deutschland) in an effort to gain exposure.[41]

expressionism, the other being Der Blaue Reiter group. Die Brücke was a group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden in 1905 by architecture students who wanted to be painters: Fritz Bleyl (1880–1966), Erich Heckel (1883–1970), Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff (1884–1976), with Max Pechstein and others later joining.[42] The notoriously individualistic Emil Nolde (1867–1956) was briefly a member of Die Brücke, but was at odds with the younger members of the group. Die Brücke moved to Berlin in 1911, where it eventually dissolved in 1913. Perhaps their most important contribution had been the rediscovery of the woodcut as a valid medium for original artistic expression. [citation needed
]

Der Blaue Reiter ("The Blue Rider") formed in Munich, Germany in 1911. Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, August Macke, Alexej von Jawlensky, Marianne von Werefkin and others founded the group in response to the rejection of Kandinsky's painting Last Judgment from an exhibition by Neue Künstlervereinigung—another artists' group of which Kandinsky had been a member. The name Der Blaue Reiter derived from Marc's enthusiasm for horses, and from Kandinsky's love of the colour blue. For Kandinsky, blue is the colour of spirituality—the darker the blue, the more it awakens human desire for the eternal (see his 1911 book On the Spiritual in Art). Kandinsky had also titled a painting Der Blaue Reiter (see illustration) in 1903.[43] The intense sculpture and printmaking of Käthe Kollwitz was strongly influenced by Expressionism, which also formed the starting point for the young artists who went on to join other tendencies within the movements of the early 20th century.[44]

Die Brücke and Der Blaue Reiter were both examples of tendency of early 20th-century German art to be "honest, direct, and spiritually engaged"[45] The difference in how the two groups attempted this were telling, however. The artists of Der Blaue Reiter were less oriented towards intense expression of emotion and more towards theory- a tendency which would lead Kandinsky to pure abstraction. Still, it was the spiritual and symbolic properties of abstract form that were important. There were therefore Utopian tones to Kandinsky's abstractions: "We have before us an age of conscious creation, and this new spirit in painting is going hand in hand with thoughts toward an epoch of greater spirituality."[46] Die Brücke also had Utopian tendencies, but took the medieval craft guild as a model of cooperative work that could better society- "Everyone who with directness and authenticity conveys that which drives him to creation belongs to us".[47] The Bauhaus also shared these Utopian leanings, seeking to combine fine and applied arts (Gesamtkunstwerk) with a view towards creating a better society. [citation needed]

Weimar period

Made in Germany (German: Den macht uns keiner nach), by George Grosz, drawn in pen 1919, photo-lithograph 1920

A major feature of German art in the early 20th century until 1933 was a boom in the production of works of art of a

Satirical-Grotesque genre included George Grosz, Otto Dix and Max Beckmann, at least in their works of the 1920s. Dada in Germany, the leading practitioners of which were Kurt Schwitters and Hannah Höch, was centered in Berlin, where it tended to be more politically oriented than Dada groups elsewhere.[50] They made important contributions to the development of collage as a medium for political commentary- Schwitters later developed his Merzbau, a forerunner of installation art.[50] Dix and Grosz were also associated with the Berlin Dada group. Max Ernst led a Dada group in Cologne, where he also practiced collage, but with a greater interest in Gothic fantasy than in overt political content—this hastened his transition into surrealism, of which he became the leading German practitioner.[51] The Swiss-born Paul Klee, Lyonel Feininger and others experimented with cubism. [citation needed
]

The

Magic Realism, and included Anton Räderscheidt, Georg Schrimpf, Alexander Kanoldt, and Carl Grossberg. Unlike some of the other groupings, the Neue Sachlichkeit was never a formal group, and its artists were associated with other groups; the term was invented by a sympathetic curator, and "Magic Realism" by an art critic.[52]

Plakatstil, "poster style" in German, was an early style of poster design that began in the early 20th century, using bold, straight fonts with very simple designs, in contrast to Art Nouveau posters. Lucian Bernhard was a leading figure. [citation needed]

Art in the Third Reich

Main article:
Art of the Third Reich

The Nazi regime banned

classical beauty. While the 1920s to 1940s are considered the heyday of modern art movements, there were conflicting nationalistic movements that resented abstract art, and Germany was no exception. Avant-garde German artists were now branded both enemies of the state and a threat to the German nation. Many went into exile, with relatively few returning after World War II. Dix was one who remained, being conscripted into the Volkssturm Home Guard militia; Pechstein kept his head down in rural Pomerania. Nolde also stayed, creating his "unpainted pictures" in secret after being forbidden to paint. Beckmann, Ernst, Grosz, Feininger and others went to America, Klee to Switzerland, where he died. Kirchner committed suicide.[53]

In July, 1937, the Nazis mounted a polemical exhibition entitled Entartete Kunst (Degenerate art), in Munich; it subsequently travelled to eleven other cities in Germany and Austria. The show was intended as an official condemnation of modern art, and included over 650 paintings, sculptures, prints, and books from the collections of thirty two German museums. Expressionism, which had its origins in Germany, had the largest proportion of paintings represented. Simultaneously, and with much pageantry, the Nazis presented the Grosse deutsche Kunstausstellung (Great German art exhibition) at the palatial Haus der deutschen Kunst (House of German Art). This exhibition displayed the work of officially approved artists such as Arno Breker and Adolf Wissel. At the end of four months Entartete Kunst had attracted over two million visitors, nearly three and a half times the number that visited the nearby Grosse deutsche Kunstausstellung.[54]

Post-World War II art

socialist realist mosaic from East Berlin
, 1964
Joseph Beuys, wearing his ubiquitous fedora, delivers a lecture on his theory of social sculpture, 1978.

Post-war art trends in Germany can broadly be divided into Socialist realism in the DDR (communist East Germany), and in West Germany a variety of largely international movements including Neo-expressionism and Conceptualism.[citation needed]

Notable socialist realism include or included Walter Womacka, Willi Sitte, Werner Tübke and Bernhard Heisig.

Especially notable neo-expressionists include or included Georg Baselitz, Anselm Kiefer, Jörg Immendorff, A. R. Penck, Markus Lüpertz, Peter Robert Keil and Rainer Fetting. Other notable artists who work with traditional media or figurative imagery include Martin Kippenberger, Gerhard Richter, Sigmar Polke, and Neo Rauch.[citation needed]

Leading German conceptual artists include or included Bernd and Hilla Becher, Hanne Darboven, Hans-Peter Feldmann, Hans Haacke, and Charlotte Posenenske.[55]

HA Schult, Trash People, shown in Cologne

The

Green party.[citation needed
]

Famous for their happenings are HA Schult and Wolf Vostell. Wolf Vostell is also known for his early installations with television. His first installations with television the Cycle Black Room from 1958 was shown in Wuppertal at the Galerie Parnass in 1963 and his installation 6 TV Dé-coll/age was shown at the Smolin Gallery [57] in New York also in 1963.[58][59]

The art group Gruppe SPUR included: Lothar Fischer (1933–2004), Heimrad Prem (1934–1978), Hans-Peter Zimmer (1936–1992) and Helmut Sturm (1932). The SPUR-artists met first at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich and, before falling out with them, were associated with the Situationist International. Other groups include the Junge Wilde of the late 1970s to early 1980s.[citation needed]

documenta (sic) is a major exhibition of contemporary art held in Kassel every five years (2007, 2012...), Art Cologne is an annual art fair, again mostly for contemporary art, and Transmediale is an annual festival for art and digital culture, held in Berlin.[citation needed]

Other contemporary German artists include Jonathan Meese, Daniel Richter, Albert Oehlen, Markus Oehlen, Rosemarie Trockel, Andreas Gursky, Thomas Ruff, Blinky Palermo, Hans-Jürgen Schlieker, Günther Uecker, Aris Kalaizis, Katharina Fritsch, Fritz Schwegler and Thomas Schütte.[citation needed]

Notes

  1. ^ Venus figurine sheds light on origins of art by early humans Los Angeles Times, May 14, 2009, accessed December 11, 2009
  2. ^ Terra Sigillata Museum Rheinzabern (in German)
  3. ^ See Hinks throughout, Chapters 1 of Beckwith and 3–4 of Dodwell
  4. ^ Dodwell, 32 on the Libri Carolini
  5. ^ Beckwith, Chapter 2
  6. ^ Beckwith, Chapter 3
  7. ^ Focillon, 106
  8. ^ Dodwell, Chapter 7
  9. ^ Levey, 24-7, 37 & passim, Snyder, Chapter II
  10. ^ Snyder, 308
  11. ^ Snyder, Chapters IV (painters to 1425), VII (painters to 1500), XIV (printmakers), & XV (sculpture).
  12. ^ Focillon, 178–181
  13. ^ a b Bartrum (2002)
  14. ^ Snyder, Part III, Ch. XIX on Cranach, Luther etc.
  15. ^ Snyder, Ch. XVII
  16. ^ Wood, 9 – this is the main subject of the whole book
  17. ^ Snyder, Ch. XVII, Bartrum, 1995
  18. ^ "BBC - Dark arts: Holbein and the court of Henry VIII". BBC. Retrieved 2021-12-30.
  19. ^ Snyder, Ch. XX on the Holbeins, Bartrum (1995), 221–237 on Holbein's prints, 99–129 on the Little Masters
  20. ^ Trevor-Roper, Levey
  21. ^ Snyder, 298–311
  22. ^ Savage, 156
  23. ^ Griffiths & Carey, 24 (quotation), and Scheyer, 9 (from 1960, but the point remains valid)
  24. ^ Novotny, 62–65
  25. ^ Novotny, 49–59
  26. ^ Griffiths & Carey, 50–68, Novotny, 60–62
  27. ^ Novotny, 60
  28. ^ Gombrich, 352–357; quotes from pp. 355 & 357
  29. ^ Novotny, 78 (quotation); and see index for Winckelmann etc.
  30. Butler, Eliza M.
    , "The Tyranny of Greece over Germany: a study of the influence exercised by Greek art and poetry over the great German writers of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries" (Cambridge Univ. Press, London, 1935)
  31. ^ Novotny, 95–101
  32. ^ Novotny, 106–112
  33. ^ Griffiths and Carey, 112–122
  34. ^ Griffiths & Carey, 24–25 and passim, quotation from p. 24
  35. ^ John K. Howat: American Paradise: The World of the Hudson River School, S. 311
  36. ^ Doyle, Margaret, in Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760–1850, Volume 1, ed. Christopher John Murray, p. 89, Taylor & Francis, 2004
    ISBN 1-57958-361-X, Google books
  37. ^ Hamilton, 180
  38. ^ Wilhelm Leibl. The art of seeing, Kunsthaus Zürich, 2019
  39. ^ Hamilton, 181–184, and see index for later mentions
  40. ^ Hamilton, 113
  41. ISBN 0271043164
    .
  42. ^ Hamilton, 197–204, and Honour & Fleming, 569–576
  43. ^ Honour & Fleming, 569–576, and Hamilton, 215–221
  44. ^ Hamilton, 189–191
  45. ^ Hunter, Jacobus, and Wheeler (2000) p. 113
  46. ^ qtd. Hunter et al p. 118
  47. ^ From the Manifesto of Die Brücke, qtd Hunter et al p. 113
  48. ISBN 978-0-7546-0226-2
  49. ISBN 978-3-7913-3195-9
  50. ^ a b Hunter, Jacobus, and Wheeler (2000) pp. 173–77
  51. ^ Hamilton, 473–478
  52. ^ Hamilton, 478–479
  53. ^ "Ernst Ludwig Kirchner Biography, Art, and Analysis of Works". Retrieved 2015-09-29.
  54. ^ Hamilton, 486–487
  55. ^ Marzona, Daniel. (2005) Conceptual Art. Cologne: Taschen. Various pages
  56. ^ Moma Focus, retrieved 16 December 2009
  57. ISBN 3-925520-44-9
  58. ^ Wolf Vostell, Cycle Black Room, 1958, installation with television
  59. ^ Wolf Vostell, 6 TV Dé-coll/age, 1963, installation with television

References

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    ISBN 978-0-87099-466-1
  • Scheyer, Ernst, Baroque Painting in Germany and Austria: A Gap in American Studies, Art Journal, Vol. 20, No. 1 (Autumn, 1960), pp. 9–18, JSTOR online text
  • ISBN 0-13-623596-4
  • ISBN 0-500-23232-6
  • ISBN 0-948462-46-9

    • Further reading

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