Homs
Homs
حِمْص | |
---|---|
City | |
Csa |
Homs (
Before the
Homs did not emerge into the historical record until the 1st century BC at the time of the Seleucids. It later became the capital of a kingdom ruled by the Emesene dynasty who gave the city its name. Originally a center of worship for the sun god El-Gabal, it later gained importance in Christianity under the Byzantines. Homs was conquered by the Muslims in the 7th century and made capital of a district that bore its current name. Throughout the Islamic era, Muslim dynasties contending for control of Syria sought after Homs due to the city's strategic position in the area. Homs began to decline under the Ottomans and only in the 19th century did the city regain its economic importance when its cotton industry boomed. During French Mandate rule, the city became a center of insurrection and, after independence in 1946, a center of Baathist resistance to the first Syrian governments. During the Syrian civil war, much of the city was devastated due to the Siege of Homs; reconstruction to affected parts of the city is underway with major reconstruction beginning in 2018.[13][14]
Etymology
The origin of the city's modern name is that it is an Arabic form of the city's Latin name Emesus, derived from the Greek Émesa or Émesos,[15] or Hémesa.[16]
Most sources claim that the name Emesa in turn derived from the name of the nomadic Arab tribe known in Greek as Emesenoi, who inhabited the region prior to Roman influence in the area.[17][18][19] Émesa was shortened to Homs or Hims by its Arab inhabitants, many of whom settled there prior to the Muslim conquest of Syria.[20][21]
Other sources claim that the name Émesa or Hémesa was derived from that of the Aramean city of
The city was subsequently referred to as Χέμψ (Khémps) in Medieval Greek, and as "la Chamelle" (literally meaning "the female camel" in French but likely a corruption of the Arabic name according to René Dussaud[24]) by the Crusaders (e.g. William of Tyre, Historia, 7.12, 21.6), although they never ruled the city.[25][26]
History
For approximately 2,000 years, Homs has served as a key agricultural market, production site and trade center for the villages of northern Syria. It has also provided security services to the hinterland of Syria, protecting it from invading forces.[20] Excavations at the Citadel of Homs indicate that the earliest settlement at the site dates back to around 2300 BCE. Biblical scholars have identified the city with Hamath-zobah of Zobah mentioned in the Bible.[20][27] In 1274 BCE,[28] a battle took place between the forces of the Egyptian Empire under Ramesses II and the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II at the city of Kadesh on the Orontes River near Homs.[29] It was possibly the largest chariot battle ever fought, involving perhaps 5,000–6,000 chariots.[30][31]
Emesene dynasty and Roman rule
The city of Emesa grew to prominence after the new-found wealth of the Emesene dynasty, governed first by one of the sons of Sampsiceramus I,
Under the Romans, Emesa began to show attributes of a Greek
Emesa also grew wealthy because it formed a link in the eastern trade funnelled through Palmyra; however, this dependence also caused the city's downfall when Palmyra sank to insignificance in the 4th century. Nonetheless, Emesa at this time had grown to rank with the important cities of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Damascus. It also continued to retain local significance, because it was the market center for the surrounding villages. The city remained a strong center of paganism, because of the Temple of El-Gabal. After one of his victories over Zenobia, Emperor Aurelian visited the city to pay thanks to the deity.[47]
Due to the strength of the pagan sun cult in Emesa, Christians initially did not settle in the city.
During the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, Emesa fell in 613 to Shahrbaraz and was in Sasanian hands until near the end of the war.[52]
Arab caliphates and dynasties
Prior to the
In 637 CE, the Rashidun army, led by Khalid ibn al-Walid, captured Emesa peacefully because its inhabitants agreed to pay a substantial ransom of 71,000 to 170,000 dinars.[47][54][55] Caliph Umar established Homs as the capital of Jund Hims, a district of the province of Bilad al-Sham, encompassing the towns of Latakia, Jableh, and Tartus along the coast, Palmyra in the Syrian Desert and the territory in between, including the town of Hama.[56] Homs was likely the first city in Syria to have a substantial Muslim population.[57]
In 638, Heraclius sought help from the Christian Arab tribes in Upper Mesopotamia, mainly from Circesium and Hīt, and they mustered a large army and besieged Emesa. However, the siege was a failure, as the coalition forces lost heart and abandoned the city as at the time Iyad ibn Ghanm invaded their homeland in an effort to counter their act.[58][59][60]
The Muslims transformed half of St. John's Church into the city's
During the First Fitna, the conflict between the Umayyad dynasty and their partisans and Ali and his partisans, the inhabitants of Homs allied themselves with Ali. When he was defeated, the Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya hived the northern half of Jund Hims to form a separate district, Jund Qinnasrin, apparently as punishment.[47] Ali's oratory (mashhad 'Ali) was located in the city, and Islamic tradition claims his fingerprints are engraved on it.[55]
Despite repression by the Umayyads, Homs remained a center of Shia Islam for a while longer. As a stronghold of the Banu Kalb, a Yamani tribe, the city became heavily involved in the Qays–Yaman rivalry. The last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II, enjoyed the support of the Qays and subsequently razed the city walls in response to a rebellion by the Banu Kalb.[47]
In 750, the Abbasid Caliphate wrested control of Syria, including Homs, from the Umayyads, and the Arab tribes revolted. Despite the prosperity Homs experienced during this era, Abbasid rule was generally not welcomed nevertheless. During and after the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid (796–809), the Abbasid authorities sent numerous punitive expeditions against Homs.[47] Under the reign of Caliph al-Mutawakkil, in October 855, the Christian population revolted in response to additional taxation. The caliph put down the revolt by expelling Christians from the city, burning down their churches and executing members of their leadership.[62]
With Abbasid rule over the Caliphate weakening in the mid-9th century, Homs became sought after by rebel dynasties contending for control of Syria due to the city's strategic position. Initially, the Egypt-based Tulunids came into control of it, but they were forced out by the Aleppo-based Hamdanids, who were briefly succeeded by the Qarmatians,[47] after the latter's Turkish rebel ally Alptakin invaded northern Syria and established Homs as his base.[63]
In 891, Muslim geographer
For around thirty years during the 10th century, Homs was raided by the Byzantines led by Nikephoros II Phokas in October 968, and its inhabitants were subject to slaughter and plunder while the Great Mosque of al-Nuri was briefly restored as a church.[66] In 974–975, John I Tzimiskes managed to control the city during his Syrian campaigns.[67]
Throughout most of the 11th century, the Byzantine raids receded greatly and the
Saljuqid, Ayyubid, and Mamluk rule
The
Muslim geographer
Towards the end of Ayyubid rule, Homs remained a centrepiece of the wars between them and the Crusaders, as well as internecine conflicts with the Mongol Empire and the Mamluks.[68] The First Battle of Homs between the Mongols and the Mamluks took place on 10 December 1260, ending in a decisive Mamluk victory. The Second Battle of Homs was fought on 29 October 1281, also ending in a Mamluk victory. The Mamluks were finally defeated in the Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar, also known as the "Third Battle of Homs," in 1299.[68]
Homs declined politically after falling to the Mamluks under
Ottoman rule
In 1516, Homs was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire and consequently suffered a greater political eclipse, but it continued to thrive as an economic center, processing the agricultural and pastoral products that flowed to it from surrounding districts.[78] Homs was particularly well known for silk and wool weaving, especially the alaja, which was mottled muslin run through with gold threads and used in feminine apparel. This silk was exported as far as the Ottoman capital Istanbul. In addition to weaving industries, there were olive oil presses and water mills for wheat and sesame, while grapes and rice, grown in the surrounding marshlands from the 16th century, were found in abundance in the city's markets. Moreover, the markets of Homs were the center of a trade in livestock, where flocks of sheep and goats coming from Aleppo met camels and cattle moving north from Damascus.[68]
The coming of the Ottomans brought administrative changes to Homs, as it became the capital city of
The countryside of Homs saw an increase in Bedouin raids in the first half of the 19th century, interrupted by its occupation by Muhammad Ali's Egypt led by Ibrahim Pasha between 1832 and 1840.[78][82] The city rebelled against Egyptian rule and consequently, the citadel was destroyed when the Egyptians suppressed the revolt. Ottoman rule was soon restored and up to the 1860s, Homs was large enough to form a discrete economic unit of trade and processing of agricultural products from its satellite villages and the neighbouring Bedouin tribes.[68]
The local economy was stimulated when the Ottoman government extended security to the city and its surrounding areas; new villages were established and old ones were resettled. However, Homs found itself faced with European economic competition since Ottoman rule was restored. Homs' economic importance was boosted again during the depression of the 1870s, as its cotton industry boomed due to a decline of European textile production. The quality and design of cotton goods from Homs satisfied both the lower and upper classes of the local, Ottoman, and foreign markets. There were around 5,000 looms in Homs and nearby Hama, and one British consul referred to Homs as the "Manchester of Syria."[68]
Modern era
20th century
Throughout the 20th century Homs held high political importance in the country and was home to several heads of state and other high-ranking government officials.
An oil pipeline between Tripoli and Kirkuk was built in Homs in the early 1930s and it followed an ancient caravan route between Palmyra and the Mediterranean. In 1959, an oil refinery was built to process some of this oil for domestic consumption.[68] The city's oil refinery was bombed by the Israeli Air Force (IAF) during the 1973 Yom Kippur War.[88]
21st century
From May 2011 – May 2014, the city was under siege by the Syrian Army and security forces. The Syrian government claims it is targeting "armed gangs" and "terrorists" in the area. According to the Syrian opposition, Homs has since become a "blighted city," where authorities regularly block deliveries of medicine, food and fuel to the inhabitants of certain districts. By June, there were near-daily confrontations between protesting residents and Syrian forces. As a result of these circumstances, there have been more deaths in Homs and its vicinity than in other areas of Syria. Homs was the first Syrian city where images of al-Assad and his family were routinely torn down or defaced and the first place where Syrian forces used artillery during the uprising. The Center for Documenting Violations in Syria claims that at least 1,770 people have been killed in Homs since the uprising began.[89]
On 9 December 2015, under a UN-negotiated deal, the remnants of anti-government forces and their families, that had been under siege the al-Waer district for three years, began to evacuate from the city.[90]
Geography
The
Homs is located 162 kilometres (101 mi) north of
to the east.Old City and subdivisions
Old City of Homs |
---|
The Old City is the most condensed area of Homs, and it includes the neighbourhoods of Bab Tadmur, Bab al-Dreib, Bab Hud and the immediate vicinity of the citadel, covering an area of 1.2 square kilometres (0.46 sq mi).[91] Little remains of the Old City; its walls and gates were demolished in the Ottoman era, but a short section of fortified wall with a circular corner tower still exists. Half a kilometre to the south, a large earth mound marks the site where the citadel once stood.[92] To the north of the citadel lies the Christian Quarter, known as "al-Hamidiyah".[93] This neighbourhood is one of the few areas of Homs that retains its older look, with most of the alternating black-and-white stone buildings dating from the Mamluk era. They are still used as shops and dwellings, and there has been recent renovation.[94]
At the time of the Abbasids, Homs was known for its seven gates. They were Bab al-Souq (Gate of the Market), Bab Tadmur (Gate of Palmyra), Bab al-Dreib (or Bab al-Deir), Bab al-Sebaa (Gate of the Lions), Bab al-Turkman (Gate of the Turkmen), Bab al-Masdoud (Closed Door), and Bab Hud (The Gate of Hud).[68] Only two gates—Bab Tadmor and Bab al-Dreib—remain today.[95] The oldest of Homs' mosques and churches are located in the Old City.[92]
Homs consists of several subdivisions outside the Old City. The large neighbourhood of Khaldiyah spreads along its northern edge which is bordered by Al-Bayadah and Deir Baalbah, while the more modern neighbourhoods of al-Sabil, al-Zahra Jub al-Jandali and Armenian quarter are situated to the east of the Old City. South of it are the neighbourhoods of Bab al-Sebaa, al-Mreijeh, al-Adawiyya, al-Nezha, Akrama[d] and beyond them lay the Karm al-Loz, Karm al-Zaytoun, Wadi al-Dhahab, al-Shamas, Masaken al-Idikhar and Dahia al-Walid neighbourhoods.[93] The modern commercial centre lies to the west in the neighbourhood of Jouret al-Shayyah, and further west are the upscale neighbourhoods of Qusoor, al-Qarabis, al-Baghtasia, al-Mahatta, al-Hamra, al-Inshaat, Karm al-Shami, al-Ghouta and Baba Amr. The suburb of al-Waer is located even further west, separated from the city by areas of farmland called al-Basatin and the Orontes River forming a green belt where it is forbidden to build anything.[93] The Baath University complex and dormitories are located on the western-southern edge of the city next to the neighbourhood of Akrama.[93]
Climate
Homs has a
Homs' location ensures that it receives softening influences and breezes from the Mediterranean. As a result, the city has a much milder climate than nearby Hama, with higher average rainfall of 18 inches (460 mm) instead of 14 inches (360 mm), but it also experiences greater winds.[20]
Climate data for Homs(1952-2004 normals) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 11.1 (52.0) |
13.0 (55.4) |
16.6 (61.9) |
21.6 (70.9) |
27.0 (80.6) |
30.8 (87.4) |
32.3 (90.1) |
32.8 (91.0) |
31.3 (88.3) |
26.9 (80.4) |
19.1 (66.4) |
12.5 (54.5) |
22.9 (73.2) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 7.0 (44.6) |
8.2 (46.8) |
11.1 (52.0) |
15.4 (59.7) |
20.0 (68.0) |
24.0 (75.2) |
26.1 (79.0) |
26.5 (79.7) |
24.4 (75.9) |
19.8 (67.6) |
13.1 (55.6) |
8.2 (46.8) |
17.0 (62.6) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.8 (37.0) |
3.3 (37.9) |
5.6 (42.1) |
9.2 (48.6) |
13.0 (55.4) |
17.1 (62.8) |
19.8 (67.6) |
20.1 (68.2) |
17.5 (63.5) |
12.7 (54.9) |
7.0 (44.6) |
3.8 (38.8) |
11.0 (51.8) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 95.1 (3.74) |
76.5 (3.01) |
56.4 (2.22) |
33.3 (1.31) |
13.0 (0.51) |
2.6 (0.10) |
0.2 (0.01) |
0.0 (0.0) |
2.4 (0.09) |
21.1 (0.83) |
48.1 (1.89) |
80.7 (3.18) |
429.4 (16.89) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1mm) | 13 | 15 | 10 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 7 | 11 | 70 |
Source: [1] |
Demographics
Year | Population |
---|---|
12th century | ~7,000[97] |
1785 | ~2,000[68] |
1860s (estimate) | 15,000–20,000[68] |
1907 (estimate) | ~65,000[27] |
1932 | 65,000[98] |
1960 | 136,000[98] |
1978 | 306,000[98] |
1981 | 346,871[99] |
1994 | 540,133[100] |
2004 | 652,609[101] |
2005 (estimate) | 750,000[20] |
2008 (estimate) | 823,000[50] |
2011 (estimate) | 806,625[102] |
2013 (estimate) | 544,428[102] |
2017 (estimate) | 775,404[3] |
Homs was one of the largest cities in Syria in the 12th century with a population of 7,000.
Today, Homs' population reflects Syria's general religious diversity, and is made up primarily of
During the Armenian genocide in the early 20th century, about 20,000 Armenians immigrated to Homs and the surrounding villages.[108] A small Greek community also exists in the city.[109]
Economy
After long periods of stagnation under Ottoman rule, Homs started to flourish again in the 20th century. Its geographic and strategic location has made it a centre of agriculture and industry. The "Homs Irrigation Scheme", the first of its kind in modern Syria, brought prosperity to cultivators and the long-established enterprises involved in the processing of agricultural and pastoral products.[110] Crops grown in Homs include wheat, barley, lentils, sugar beets, cotton, and vines, as well as serving as a point of exchange between the sedentary zone and the desert. Moreover, because of easy access to the Mediterranean, Homs has attracted overland trade from the Persian Gulf and Iraq.[86]
Homs is also home to several large public heavy industries, such as the oil refinery west of the city which opened in 1959.[110] A fertiliser plant was built in 1971 to process phosphates from their deposits near Palmyra; the fertiliser is for domestic consumption and export.[111] A growing private industrial sector has flourished in the past decade and many small to medium-sized enterprises occupy the industrial zones northwest and south of the city. A new sugar refinery is being built by a Brazilian company, and an automobile plant is under construction by Iran Khodro. Also a new phosphate plant and oil refinery are being built east of the city. Homs is also the hub of an important road and rail network, it is the central link between the interior cities and the Mediterranean coast.
A major industrial project was the establishment of a new industrial city in Hisyah, 47 kilometres (29 mi) south of the city of Homs. Spreading across some 2,500 hectares (25 km2), the city covers four main industrial sectors: textiles, food, chemical, engineering and vocational. In all, the facilities are designed to accommodate up to 66,000 workers and their families. Moreover, a free zone has been established within the city.[112]
The hinterland of Homs is well known for its grapes which are used in Syria's liqueur industry, particularly in producing arak, nectar wine, and red wine.[113] The city is considered a good base for day trips and excursions to the many historical and touristic sights nearby. Popular destinations include Krak des Chevaliers, Qatna, Talkalakh and Marmarita. Homs has several hotels; Safir Hotel is considered one of Syria's best five-star hotels and the only one of that status in the city. An-Nasr al-Jedid Hotel is built in a 100-year-old mansion and is labelled by tour guides as the "best budget hotel in Homs". Other hotels include Hotel al-Mimas, Ghazi Hotel, and Hotel Khayyam.[114][115]
Culture
Cuisine
Although people in Homs eat the same foods common in Levantine cuisine, the city is well known throughout Syria for its own cuisine. A prominent dish is Batarsh, a type of baba ghanouj made with yogurt and garlic instead of tahini.[116] Homs is also home to a variety of kibbeh mishwiyyeh or "grilled kibbeh". It consists of two pancakes of kibbeh stuffed with ground lamb, cooked with lamb fat and various spices.[117] Jazar Mahshi ("stuffed carrot") is native dish in Homs and is made of yellow carrot stuffed with minced lamb, rice.[118] The city specialises in cooking a type of okra meal, known as bamya bi-l zayt ("okra with olive oil").[119]
Homs has an array of restaurants, some of the most highly acclaimed are those within the Safir Hotel: Mamma Mia and Mersia. The former specialises in
Homs also recently emerged as the restaurant scene in pre-civil-war Syria after completing its Malab St. Hamra development. The Hamra Street in the Malab area was home to a strip of highly rated restaurants including La Luna, a shisha lounge; Chez Moi, serving a few French dishes along with the typical local food; Mia Casa, an Italian restaurant; Troy, an American-Latin-Syrian mashup; and Quattro, another Italian restaurant.
Like in Damascus and Aleppo, many houses in the Old City of Homs have been renovated and transformed into restaurants specialising in Levantine cuisine. Most notable of these is Beit al-Agha restaurant, situated in a renovated palace that dates back to the mid-19th century with Ottoman and Mamluk architecture,[121] and Julia Dumna Restaurant, which has been described as the best example of traditional Homsi houses, with its white and black stones.[122]
Museums
There are two main museums in Homs, both located in the central part of the city. Qasr al-Zahrawi, a former
Festivals
Homs has several festivals, and the city annually co-hosts the Desert Folk Festival and the Al-Badiya Festival with Palmyra. The Desert Folk Festival is an annual festival of the ancient traditions and costumes of the Badiya (Syrian Desert) and it includes exhibitions and concerts between Homs and Palmyra. The festival is held in the first week of May.[125] The Al-Badiya Festival, which is held mainly in Palmyra with some events in Homs, draws approximately 60,000 tourists during the last week of May. Activities include horse, camel and car races, horse contests, music and theatre shows, antique exhibitions and a crafts market.[126] Other festivals include the al-Nasarah Festival and the Festival of Krak des Chevaliers and the Valley. An annual festival is held at the Church of Saint Elian, attracting large numbers of pilgrims.[127]
Historically,
Sports
Homs is home to two
Theaters
Culture House Theater in Homs was established in 1973. It hosts theatre plays, poetry, instrumental and musical festivals.[133]
Government
Homs is the capital of the
The council's organizational structure is composed of the top leadership, consisting of the president, vice-president, and secretary, and the lower leadership, made up of the directors of seventeen city branches: Administrative Affairs, Finance, Technical Affairs, Health Affairs, Legal Affairs, the Fire Department, Mechanisms, Parks, Hygiene, Property, Provisional Register, Services and Maintenance, Works, IT, Planning and Statistics, Culture, and Internal Oversight Service.[135]
Education
The oldest schools in Homs were founded by
Homs is home to the Al-Baath University, one of four major universities in Syria was founded in 1979. A specialist engineering foundation, the university has one of the largest student bodies.[137] It houses several faculties including medicine, engineering, liberal arts, and sciences and a number of two-year career (vocational) institutions. It is the only university in the country to have departments in petroleum engineering and veterinary medicine.[138]
The
There are 1,727 schools and 15,000 kindergartens in the Homs Governorate, most of which are public facilities. In 2007, 375,000 students in the governorate were enrolled in elementary schools (6–15 years), 36,000 in high schools (15–18 years), and around 12,000 in vocational training schools.[141]
Local infrastructure
Transportation
Homs is considered a
Homs has a large
Hama Street starts at the Old Clock Square in the city center and crosses Homs from south to north, where it continues along the neighbourhood of al-Khaldiyah on to the Karnak station, and turns into the Homs-Hama-Aleppo highway.
Landmarks
The city itself is famous for its historic
Other landmarks include the
The Um al-Zennar Church ("Church of the Virgin's Girdle") was built in 1852 atop an earlier church dating back to the 4th century, and perhaps 59 AD. The other prominent church in Homs is the 5th-century Church of Saint Elian, built in honour of Christian martyr Saint Elian, whose tomb is located in the crypt.[127]
The
Twin towns – sister cities
Homs is twinned with:
See also
- Cities and towns during the Syrian Civil War
- List of cities in Syria
- List of people from Homs
- Timeline of Homs
Notes
- ^ Meaning a fertile land far from the water, scourge and pestilence[2]
- ^ According to J. L. Whitaker, "Strabo seems to consider these Emesani to be among the tribes of tent dwellers (skénitai) who dwelt in the region south of Apamea".[20]
- incomplete short citation]
Fin[es]
inteṛ
Hadriano[s]
Palmyrenos
et
[He]ṃesenos - Ikrima ibn Abi Jahl.
References
- ^ Al-Dbiyat 2013, p. 160
- ^ Almaany Team. "معنى كلمة عَذية في معجم المعاني الجامع والمعجم الوسيط – معجم عربي عربي – صفحة 1". almaany.com. Retrieved 24 October 2017.[dead link]
- ^ a b "Syria Top 20 Cities by Population". World Population Review. Archived from the original on 21 January 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
- ^ "President al-Assad issues decrees on appointing new governors for eight Syrian provinces". Syrian Arab News Agency. 20 July 2022. Archived from the original on 20 July 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
- ^ "Homs". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 19 April 2019.
- ^ "Homs". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 19 April 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2019.
- ^ "Homs" Archived 19 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine (US) and "Homs". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020.
- ^ a b "Homs". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 19 April 2019.
- ^ "Emesa". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020.
- ^ Vailhé, Siméon (1909). "Emesa". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company. Archived from the original on 10 March 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
- ^ a b "Distance Between Main Syrian Cities". HomsOnline. 16 May 2008. Archived from the original on 8 March 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
- ^ 2004 census.
- ^ "11 Million Dollars for Reconstruction in Homs. – Syria Scope". www.en.syria-scope.com. Archived from the original on 3 December 2017. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
- ^ "Life in the aftermath: A wounded Homs city struggles to reconcile its past". Syria Direct. Archived from the original on 9 November 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
- ^ Room, 2006, p. 167.
- ISBN 9780814341926. Archivedfrom the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
- ^ a b c d Ball, 2000, pp. 34–35.
- ISBN 9780199670727. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
- ^ Michaela Konrad (2017). "The client kings of Emesa: a study of local identities in the Roman East". Syria. 94. Translated by Mary Wong-Sommer. Archived from the original on 21 August 2021. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Dumper, 2007, p. 171.
- ^ Gibbon and Ockley, 1870, p. 177.
- ^ ܨܘܒܐ in English Archived 23 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine glosbe.com.
- ^ Khoury Issa Ahmed (1983). History of Homs – Chapter One, 2300 BCE – 622 AD (PDF) (in Arabic). Al-Sayih Library. p. 38. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 September 2017. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
- ^ René Dussaud (1927). Topographie historique de la Syrie antique et médiévale.
Le terme « vulgo » indique que Camela est tiré du vocable arabe Ḥimṣ. La transcription de la gutturale initiale par c est fréquente, ainsi Calep (Gautier le chancelier, etc.) pour Ḥaleb. La vocalisation et l'addition de l ont été entraînées pour retrouver un mot considéré comme typique pour la région. [...] Peut-être cet l ne se prononçait-il pas primitivement ou très faiblement, et cela expliquerait sa présence dans le mot amiral, transcription d'amir.
- ^ Grousset, René. Histoire des Croisades III. p. 18.
- ISBN 978-0-7546-5722-4.
- ^ a b c Cook, 1907, p. 362.
- ^ around "Year 5 III Shemu day 9" of Ramesses II's reign (BAR III, p. 317) or more precisely: 12 May 1274 BCE based on Ramesses' commonly accepted accession date in 1279 BC.
- ^ Kitchen, K.A, "Ramesside Inscriptions", Volume 2, Blackwell Publishing Limited, 1996, pp. 16–17
- ^ Healy, 1993, p. 22
- ^ Healy, 1993, p. 39
- ^ Strabon 1819, p. 209; Seyrig 1952, p. 187.
- ^ Seyrig 1952, p. 186.
- ^ Seyrig 1952, p. 187.
- ^ Abdulkarim.
- ^ Schlumberger 1939, pp. 43, 66.
- ^ Bryce 2014, p. 284.
- ^ Schlumberger 1939, p. 64.
- ^ Seyrig 1952, pp. 189–190.
- ^ Seyrig 1952, p. 190.
- ^ Edwell 2008, p. 41.
- ^ Seyrig 1952, p. 250.
- ^ Chad 1972, p. 92.
- ^ Millar 1993, p. 84.
- ^ Sartre 2001.
- ^ Albertini 1934, pp. 24–26.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Dumper, 2007, p. 172.
- ^ Herodian, Roman History, V.3.5 Archived 22 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Herbermann, 1913, p. 403.
- ^ a b c Carter, 2008, p. 155.
- ^ "Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Nemesius". Archived from the original on 26 September 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
- ISBN 9781473828650.
- ^ Kennedy, 2007, p. 74
- ^ Mannheim, 2001, p. 205.
- ^ a b c Yaqut al-Hamawi quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 356.
- ^ le Strange, 1890, p. 25.
- ^ Kennedy, 2007, p. 86.
- ^ Ibn Kathir, Abu al-Fiḍā ‘Imād Ad-Din Ismā‘īl. "Al Bidayah wa Nihayah". Waqfeya. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
- ^ Zakkar, Suhayl (1971). The Emirate of Aleppo: 1004–1094. Aleppo: Dar al-Amanah. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
- ISBN 0-521-52940-9.
- Ibn Jubairquoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 355.
- ^ Gil, 1997, pp. 296–97.
- ^ Gil, 1997, p. 343.
- ^ a b le Strange, 1890, p. 353.
- ^ al-Maqdisi quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 354.
- ^ Bosworth 2007, p. 157.
- ^ Romane 2015, p. 73.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Dumper, 2007, p. 173.
- ^ le Strange, 1890, p. 354.
- ^ Lock 2006, p. 61.
- ^ Hamilton 2000, p. 98.
- ^ Lewis 2017, p. 239.
- ^ Lewis 2017, p. 240.
- ^ a b Hamilton 2000, p. 99.
- ^ Lock 2006, p. 62.
- ^ Ibn Batuta quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 357.
- ^ Mohammad Amin Sheikho (2011). حقيقة تيمورلنك العظيم تظهر في القرن الواحد والعشرين- الجزء الثاني (in Arabic). دار نور البشير. p. 43. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
- ^ a b Collelo, Thomas (1987). "Syria – Ottoman Empire". Syria: A Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2009.
- ^ Talhami, 2001, p. 2
- ISBN 9780511676413. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.pp. 48-51
- ISBN 978-90-04-37902-2. p. 101-102.
- ^ Shaw, 1977, p. 33
- ISBN 9781400858392. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- ^ Cleveland, 2000, p. 215.
- ^ "Military Training". All Refer. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
- ^ a b c Commins, 2004, p. 130.
- ^ Fisk, Robert. The fearful realities keeping the Assad regime in power Archived 15 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine The Independent. pp.35–36. 4 March 2012. Retrieved on 4 March 2012.
- ^ a b Seale, 2007, p. 210.
- ^ Capital of the Revolution Archived 17 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Al-Ahram Weekly. 15 December 2011.
- ^ "Syria conflict: Rebels leave Homs under truce – BBC News". 9 December 2015. Archived from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
- ^ a b "Overview" (in Arabic). Homs City Council. 2008. Archived from the original on 18 May 2006. Retrieved 28 February 2009.
- ^ a b Carter, 2004, p. 157.
- ^ a b c d "A Map of the divisions of Homs City" (in Arabic). Homs City Council. Archived from the original on 13 December 2005. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
- ^ Carter, 2008, p. 157.
- ^ "Homs". HomsOnline. 2008. Archived from the original on 16 May 2015. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
- ^ رغم تهجير نصف سكانها.. ديموغرافيا حمص تحافظ على ثباتها حتى الآن. enabbaladi.net (in Arabic). 31 January 2016. Archived from the original on 15 October 2019. Retrieved 15 October 2019.
- ^ a b Shatzmiller, 1994, p. 59.
- ^ a b c Winckler, 1998, p. 72.
- ^ a b Population Census Report (1981), Central Bureau of Statistics
- ^ a b PUN Demographic Yearbook (1999)
- ^ a b General Census of Population and Housing 2004. Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). Homs Governorate. (in Arabic)
- ^ a b "CITY PROFILE HOMS: Multi Sector Assessment" (PDF). SDC and UN–Habitat. May 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 December 2018. Retrieved 28 December 2018.
- ^ "Daniel Demeter". Archived from the original on 21 February 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
- OCHA. June 2014. Archived(PDF) from the original on 5 May 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
- ^ Baylson, 1987, p. 27.
- Britannica.com. 2009. Archivedfrom the original on 6 February 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2009.
- ^ Fahlbusch and Bromiley, 2008, p. 282.
- ^ Toynbee, 1916, p. 550.
- ^ "Relations with Syria: The Greek community". Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2008. Archived from the original on 21 May 2011. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
- ^ a b Dumper, 2007, p. 174.
- ^ Commins, 2004, p. 136.
- ^ "About Homes". Homs Chamber of Commerce. 2005. Archived from the original on 2 June 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
- ^ "Wine Profile". Cortas Winery. 2007. Archived from the original on 15 June 2008. Retrieved 28 February 2009.
- ^ a b Carter, 2004, p. 158.
- ^ Carter, 2008, p. 158
- ^ Wright, 2003, p. 63.
- ^ Wright, 2003, p. 427.
- ^ Wright, 2003, p. 223.
- ^ Wright, 2003, p. 182.
- ^ Carter, 2004, pp. 158–59.
- ^ "Beit al-Agha Restaurant". Beit al-Agha Restaurant. 2006. Archived from the original on 11 July 2009. Retrieved 27 February 2009.
- ^ "Julia Dumna Restaurant" (in Arabic). eHoms. 2006. Archived from the original on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
- ^ متحف حمص. Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums (in Arabic). 13 December 2012. Archived from the original on 4 December 2017. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
- ^ Mannheim, 2001, p. 209.
- ^ "Desert Folk Festival in Palmyra". KadmusArts. 2009. Archived from the original on 6 January 2009. Retrieved 17 February 2009.
- ^ "Al Badya Fesival [sic] (Badyet Al-Chaam)". KadmusArts. 2009. Archived from the original on 6 January 2009. Retrieved 17 February 2009.
- ^ a b Beattie, 2001, p. 208.
- ^ George Kadar (2009). Adab al-nuktah, baḥth fī judhūr al-nuktah al-Ḥimṣīyah, ḥarb al-aydyūlūjiyā al-fukāhīyah wa-lītūrjiyā al-majānīn al-mundathirah أدب الـنـكـتـة، بـحـث في جـذور الـنـكـتـة الـحـمـصـيـة ، حـرب الأيـديـولـوجـيـا الـفـكـاهـيـة و لـيـتـورجـيـا الـمـجـانـيـن الـمـنـدثـرة (in Arabic). Dār Raslān.
- ^ a b "Al-Karamah Sports Club". Welt Fussball Archive. Archived from the original on 16 February 2010. Retrieved 27 February 2009.
- ^ Carter, 2004, p. 67.
- ^ "Al-Wathba". Welt Fussball Archive. Archived from the original on 17 March 2012. Retrieved 27 February 2009.
- ^ "موقع حمص – قريباً "حمص" ستكون بملعبين دوليين". esyria.sy. Archived from the original on 16 January 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
- ^ افتتاح مسرح دار الثقافة بحمص.. مشوح: نجهد للارتقاء بالفكر الثقافي. Discover-Syria (in Arabic). 27 June 2014. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
- ^ "Electronic Portal of Syria" (in Arabic). E-Syria. 2007. Archived from the original on 22 September 2010. Retrieved 28 February 2009.
- ^ "Homs City Council Organizational Structure" (in Arabic). Homs City Council. 2008. Retrieved 28 February 2009.[permanent dead link]
- ^ معالم حمص ومشيداتها الأثرية: المدرسة الغسانية.. منارة للعلم والثقافة خلال قرن من الزمن!. Zaman Al-Wsl (in Arabic). 1 February 2014. Archived from the original on 4 December 2017. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
- ^ Beattie, 2000, p. 150.
- ^ Collelo, Thomas (1987). "Syria – Education". Syria: A Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
- ^ "History and Achievements". The International School of Choueifat. 2006. Archived from the original on 7 March 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
- ^ "Overview". Al-Andalus University. 2008. Archived from the original on 12 April 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
- ^ "Directorate of Education in Homs" (in Arabic). SANA. 7 September 2008. Archived from the original on 25 August 2008. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
- ^ Mannheim, 2001, p. 204.
- ^ a b Carter, 2004, p. 159.
- ^ Carter, 2008, p. 156.
- ^ Beattie, 2001, p. 207.
- ^ Carter, 2008, pp. 156–57.
- ^ Mannheim, 2001, p. 205–206.
- ^ Beattie, 2001, p. 53.
- S2CID 162137882. Archived from the originalon 15 September 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2009.
- ^ "Cidades Irmãs de Belo Horizonte". portalbelohorizonte.com.br (in Portuguese). Belo Horizonte. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ^ "Humus Kayseri". 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 27 December 2016.
- ^ "پیمان خواهرخواندگی بین شهرهای حمص و یزد". parsine.com (in Persian). Parsine. Archived from the original on 16 September 2020. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
Sources
- Hogarth, David George (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). p. 648.
- Bosworth, C. Edmund (2007). "Homs". Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden: ISBN 9789047423836.
- Romane, Julian (2015). Byzantium Triumphant. Pen and Sword Books. ISBN 978-1473845701.
Bibliography
- Abdulkarim, Maamoun. "Les centuriationes dans la province romaine de Syrie"..
- Albertini, Eugène (1934). "A propos des Numeri syriens". Revue Africaine. 75. Société historique algérienne. from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- Al-Dbiyat, Mohamed (5 September 2013). Homs et Hama en Syrie centrale. Presses de l’Ifpo. ISBN 9782351594704. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020..
- Ball, Warwick (2000). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11376-8. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020..
- Baylson, Joshua C. (1987). Territorial Allocation by Imperial Rivalry: The Human Legacy in the Near East. University of Chicago, Dept. of Geography. ISBN 0-89065-125-6. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020..
- Beattie, Andrew; Pepper, Timothy (2001). The Rough Guide to Syria. ISBN 1-85828-718-9. Archivedfrom the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- Besant, Walter (1881). The Survey of Western Palestine: Special Papers on Topography, Archaeology, Manners and Customs, Etc. The Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020..
- Bryce, Trevor (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-100292-2.
- Carter, Terry; Dunston, Lara; Humphreys, Andrew (2004). Syria & Lebanon. Lonely Planet. p. 300. ISBN 1-86450-333-5.
- Carter, Terry; Dunston, Lara; Thomas, Amelia (2008). Syria & Lebanon. Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74104-609-0. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- Chad, Carlos (1972). Les Dynastes d'Émèse (in French). Dar el-Machreq. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020..
- Cleveland, William L. (2000). A History of the Modern Middle East: 2nd Edition. Westview Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-8133-3489-9.
- Commins, David Dean (2004). Historical Dictionary of Syria: 2nd Edition. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-4934-8. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- Cook, Thomas (1907). Cook's Handbook for Palestine and Syria. Thos. Cook & Son. p. 362.
- Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E.; Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (2007). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020..
- Edwell, Peter (2008). Between Rome and Persia: The Middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra Under Roman Control. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-09573-5.
- Fahlbusch, Erwin; Bromiley, Geoffrey William (2008). The Encyclopedia of Christianity: Volume 5: Si-Z. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2417-2. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020..
- ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020..
- Hamilton, Bernard (2000). The Leper King and His Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64187-6.
- Healy, Mark (1993). Qadesh 1300 B.C, Clash of the Warrior Kings. Osprey Publishing. ]
- Herbermann, Charles George (1913). The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church. Universal Knowledge Foundation..
- Kennedy, Hugh (2007). The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live in. Da Capo Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-306-81585-0..
- Lewis, Kevin James (2017). The Counts of Tripoli and Lebanon in the Twelfth Century: Sons of Saint-Gilles. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4724-5890-2.
- Lock, Peter (2006). The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. Routledge. ISBN 9-78-0-415-39312-6.
- Mannheim, Ivan (2001). Syria & Lebanon Handbook: The Travel Guide. Footprint Travel Guides. ISBN 1-900949-90-3. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- ISBN 9780674778863..
- Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites. McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-2248-3. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020..
- ISBN 9782213640693. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020..
- Seale, Patrick; McConville, Maureen (1990). Asad of Syria: The Struggle for the Middle East. ISBN 0-520-06976-5..
- Seyrig, Henri. "Caractères de l'histoire d'Émèse". Archived from the original on 9 July 2022. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
- Shatzmiller, Maya (1994). Labour in the medieval Islamic world. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-09896-8. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- Shaw, Ezel Kural (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29166-6. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- Strabon (1819). Géographie. Vol. 5. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- le Strange, Guy (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Committee of the ISBN 978-0-404-56288-5..
- Talhami, Ghada Hashem (2001). Syria and the Palestinians. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-3121-4. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- Wright, Clifford A. (2003). Little Foods of the Mediterranean: 500 Fabulous Recipes for Antipasti, Tapas, Hors d'œuvre, Meze, and More. ISBN 1-55832-227-2. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- Winckler, Onn (1998). Demographic developments and population policies in Baʻathist Syria. ISBN 978-1-902210-16-2. Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
External links
- eHoms – official website for Homs
- Homs Online – brief information about the city of Homs
- Emesa-net (in Japanese)
- Executive Branch of Homs Archived 13 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine (in Arabic)
- Drone footage revealing devastation of Homs, The Independent, 2 February 2016