Geography of London
London is the largest urban area and capital city of the United Kingdom. It is located in the southeast of Great Britain. The London region covers an area of 1,579 square kilometres (610 sq mi), and had a population of 8.982 million in 2019 and a population density of 5,596 people per square km as of 2021. A larger area, referred to as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration covers an area of 8,382 square kilometres (3,236 sq mi), and had a population of 12,653,500 and a population density of 1,510 people per square kilometre.[1]
London is a
360 degree panorama
Rivers and canals
River Thames
The
The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river than it is today. It has been extensively embanked. The Thames is tidal (the Tideway) up to Teddington Lock, and London is vulnerable to flooding by storm surges. The threat has increased over time due to a slow but continuous rise in high water level, caused by both the slow 'tilting' of Britain (up in the north and down in the south) caused by post-glacial rebound and the gradual rise in sea levels due to climate change. The Thames Barrier was constructed across the Thames at Woolwich in the 1970s to deal with this threat, but in early 2005 it was suggested that a ten-mile-long (16 km) barrier further downstream might be required to deal with the flood risk in the future.[2]
Within London a considerable number of rivers and streams flow into the Thames, some large enough to have exerted a significant influence on the geography of the area. Many of the smaller London tributaries now flow underground.
Left bank tributaries
Larger left bank tributaries include the
Larger rivers such as the Lea have influenced local geography in several ways:
- A river and its marshland formed a significant barrier to east–west movement: the Lea formed a natural boundary between the historic areas of Middlesex and Essex.
- The valley of the Lea formed a transport route, including the river and later Great Cambridge Road (A10) and A1055. The Lea Valley is also followed by two routes of what became the Great Eastern Railway, and had important marshalling yards and locomotive works at Temple Mills.
- The river provided power for numerous water mills, such as the Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield and nearby Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills, Wright's Flour Mill (London's last surviving working mill) at Ponders End and the Three Mills at Stratford.
- In the 19th century the lower Lea became an important area for the manufacture of chemicals, in part based on the supply of by-products such as sulphur and ammonia from the Gas Light and Coke Company's works at Bow Common.
- In the 20th century the combination of transport, wide expanses of flat land and electricity from riverside and canalside plants such as JAP Industries, etc.[3]Much industry has now gone, to be replaced by warehousing and retail parks.
The valley also became very important for London's water supply, as the source of the water transported by the New River aqueduct, but also as the location for the Lee Valley Reservoir Chain, stretching from Enfield through Tottenham and Walthamstow.
A second significant corridor of canal, railways and industries was associated with the Brent, stretching from the Thames at Brentford, through Isleworth, Greenford, Alperton and Park Royal.
The Colne (the historic boundary between Middlesex and Buckinghamshire) forms much of the western boundary of the county of Greater London.[4][5][6][7][8]
Right-bank tributaries
Significant tributaries include the
The Wandle formed south London's nearest equivalent to the Lea Valley, with an industrial corridor stretching from the Thames at
Canals
A number of canals or canalised rivers have been constructed in the London area, mostly in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. These were originally for goods traffic, which has largely ceased. Within London the canals carried coal from the docks to many canal-side
North of the Thames
Canal construction in the London area started with navigation works on the
A connection from London to the
The City Canal (1805) was built to provide a short-cut across the Isle of Dogs. This was later incorporated into the West India Docks and is no longer connected to the Thames at its upstream end. Other short canals connecting to the Thames included the Grosvenor Canal (1825) and the Kensington Canal (1828).
South of the Thames
The former Grand Surrey Canal (1807) was intended to run from the Thames at Rotherhithe to the industrial town of Mitcham, but got no further than Camberwell. It closed with the Surrey Commercial Docks in 1970 and has been filled. The Grand Surrey Canal linked to the Croydon Canal (1809) which continued as far as West Croydon; this closed in 1836.
Further afield a link from London to
Islands in the Thames
- Note: Only the largest islands are listed here. A longer list can be found in Islands in the River Thames
Topography
A list of the highest points can be found in List of highest points in London
At the largest scale London lies within the bowl of the London Basin, with most of the built-up area lying on the Tertiary and younger sediments, and only a small part of south London (Sutton, Banstead and Croydon) lying on the chalk backslope of the North Downs. The centre of the basin is dominated by the modern valley of the Thames, which forms a level corridor running from west to east. The modern floodplain is around half a mile wide to the west of Greater London, expanding to two miles wide to the east. This is bordered by slightly higher and older terraces often extending several miles from the floodplain, for example in Hounslow and Southwark. Other significant river valleys include those of the Colne, Crane, Brent, Lea (with a floodplain more than a mile wide in places), Wandle and Ravensbourne, which run north and south towards the Thames.
There are a few notable hills in Greater London, but none of them more than a few hundred feet high, and they have not impeded the development of the city in all directions. It is therefore very roughly circular.
The hills in the City of London
The hills in the
North London
To the north of the city a ridge capped by the mid-to-lower basin's residual sands known as the
North of this ridge, between the valleys of the rivers Lea and Brent, lies a second ridge (a little under 100m), formed of much younger Pleistocene deposits. Running west from Muswell Hill to Church End, Finchley and north to Whetstone, this is capped by glacial till marking the southern limit of glaciation. This overlies Dollis Hill Gravel marking the line of a former southern tributary of the Thames, when the Thames flowed further to the north than it does today, through the Vale of St Albans.[9] At its eastern end at Alexandra Palace the gravel forms the top of the ridge, as it does in smaller hills to the west including Dollis Hill itself.
Further north, ridges of Claygate Beds overlain by the pre-glacial Stanmore gravel form the slightly broken-up Grim's Dyke Ridge: Mill Hill, Totteridge, Arkley and Monken Hadley, Elstree, and Stanmore and Harrow Weald Commons.
Much of east and northeast London lies on the modern floodplain of the Thames (spared from flood by the Thames barrier) or older terraces, a notable interruption being the remains of the artificial Beckton Alps. Pole Hill at Chingford and Lippitts Hill near Gilwell Park are capped by small outliers of Claygate Beds, while the higher parts of Epping Forest such as High Beach are Claygate and Bagshot beds with later gravels.[10][11][12][13][14]
South London
Faulting and folding brings the chalk close to the surface just south of the Thames in Lewisham and Greenwich. This has resulted in a notable ridge formed of
In south-west London the lower terraces of the Thames of its west stop abruptly at a notable bluff cut into the London Clay against Richmond Hill. The higher ground across the east, save for the broad valley of the Wandle is capped across northern Wimbledon and the Norwood Ridge by Claygate Beds and older Thames gravels; the broad western part of this is dissected by the valley of Beverley Brook, which separates Richmond Park from Wimbledon Common.[10][15][16][17]
Climate
The climate of London is broadly similar to the rest of the UK, with warm summers, cool winters, no wet or dry season, and often jahs to strong winds. It is classed as a
Daytime winter temperatures in London are around 8 °C (46 °F), but can vary from as high as 16 °C (61 °F), down to as low as −7.4 °C (18.7 °F), as occurred during January 1987.
Sunshine tends to increase towards the west of the London area, with annual average at Heathrow and Kew in excess of 1,600 hours, at Northwood and Hampstead, in the 1,500-1,600 hour range, but at Greenwich, below 1,500 hours. The sunniest year on record at Heathrow was 2003, with, coincidentally, just over 2,003 hours of sunshine.[24]
Heathrow - Airport Weather Station to the west of London,
Climate data for Heathrow Airport WMO ID: 03772; coordinates 51°28′45″N 0°27′02″W / 51.47921°N 0.45057°W; elevation: 25 m (82 ft); 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1948–present | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 16.0 (60.8) |
20.1 (68.2) |
23.8 (74.8) |
28.5 (83.3) |
31.8 (89.2) |
34.8 (94.6) |
40.2 (104.4) |
37.9 (100.2) |
33.0 (91.4) |
28.8 (83.8) |
18.6 (65.5) |
16.6 (61.9) |
40.2 (104.4) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 8.4 (47.1) |
9.0 (48.2) |
11.7 (53.1) |
15.0 (59.0) |
18.4 (65.1) |
21.6 (70.9) |
23.9 (75.0) |
23.4 (74.1) |
20.2 (68.4) |
15.8 (60.4) |
11.5 (52.7) |
8.8 (47.8) |
15.7 (60.3) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.6 (42.1) |
5.8 (42.4) |
7.9 (46.2) |
10.5 (50.9) |
13.7 (56.7) |
16.8 (62.2) |
19.0 (66.2) |
18.7 (65.7) |
15.9 (60.6) |
12.3 (54.1) |
8.4 (47.1) |
5.9 (42.6) |
11.7 (53.1) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.7 (36.9) |
2.7 (36.9) |
4.1 (39.4) |
6.0 (42.8) |
9.1 (48.4) |
12.0 (53.6) |
14.2 (57.6) |
14.1 (57.4) |
11.6 (52.9) |
8.8 (47.8) |
5.3 (41.5) |
3.1 (37.6) |
7.8 (46.0) |
Record low °C (°F) | −13.2 (8.2) |
−9.6 (14.7) |
−5.1 (22.8) |
−2.6 (27.3) |
−0.9 (30.4) |
1.5 (34.7) |
5.6 (42.1) |
5.9 (42.6) |
1.8 (35.2) |
−3.3 (26.1) |
−7.0 (19.4) |
−11.8 (10.8) |
−13.2 (8.2) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 58.8 (2.31) |
45.0 (1.77) |
38.8 (1.53) |
42.3 (1.67) |
45.9 (1.81) |
47.3 (1.86) |
45.8 (1.80) |
52.8 (2.08) |
49.6 (1.95) |
65.1 (2.56) |
66.6 (2.62) |
57.1 (2.25) |
615.0 (24.21) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 11.5 | 9.5 | 8.5 | 8.8 | 8.0 | 8.3 | 7.9 | 8.4 | 7.9 | 10.8 | 11.2 | 10.8 | 111.7 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 61.1 | 78.8 | 124.5 | 176.7 | 207.5 | 208.4 | 217.8 | 202.1 | 157.1 | 115.2 | 70.7 | 55.0 | 1,674.8 |
Source 1: Met Office [25] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: KNMI [26][27] |
Kew - Weather station in the South West part of London, adjacent to the River Thames.
Climate data for Kew Gardens WMO ID: 99095; coordinates 51°28′55″N 0°17′40″W / 51.48186°N 0.29435°W; elevation: 6 m (20 ft); 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1881–present | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 16.5 (61.7) |
21.2 (70.2) |
24.5 (76.1) |
28.4 (83.1) |
30.3 (86.5) |
34.6 (94.3) |
40.1 (104.2) |
38.1 (100.6) |
33.2 (91.8) |
29.2 (84.6) |
19.4 (66.9) |
16.8 (62.2) |
40.1 (104.2) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 8.6 (47.5) |
9.2 (48.6) |
11.9 (53.4) |
15.1 (59.2) |
18.4 (65.1) |
21.4 (70.5) |
23.8 (74.8) |
23.4 (74.1) |
20.3 (68.5) |
16.0 (60.8) |
11.6 (52.9) |
8.9 (48.0) |
15.7 (60.3) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.3 (41.5) |
5.6 (42.1) |
7.7 (45.9) |
10.1 (50.2) |
13.3 (55.9) |
16.2 (61.2) |
18.5 (65.3) |
18.2 (64.8) |
15.4 (59.7) |
11.9 (53.4) |
8.0 (46.4) |
5.6 (42.1) |
11.3 (52.3) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.0 (35.6) |
2.0 (35.6) |
3.5 (38.3) |
5.1 (41.2) |
8.2 (46.8) |
11.0 (51.8) |
13.2 (55.8) |
13.0 (55.4) |
10.5 (50.9) |
7.8 (46.0) |
4.3 (39.7) |
2.3 (36.1) |
6.9 (44.4) |
Record low °C (°F) | −12.6 (9.3) |
−11.8 (10.8) |
−8.3 (17.1) |
−4.2 (24.4) |
−1.5 (29.3) |
1.5 (34.7) |
5.3 (41.5) |
4.3 (39.7) |
−1.6 (29.1) |
−5.4 (22.3) |
−6.6 (20.1) |
−12.0 (10.4) |
−12.6 (9.3) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 59.9 (2.36) |
45.4 (1.79) |
39.0 (1.54) |
43.6 (1.72) |
44.6 (1.76) |
49.7 (1.96) |
45.2 (1.78) |
55.1 (2.17) |
51.9 (2.04) |
67.9 (2.67) |
66.0 (2.60) |
59.2 (2.33) |
627.5 (24.70) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 11.8 | 9.9 | 8.9 | 8.6 | 8.3 | 8.5 | 7.6 | 8.4 | 8.4 | 10.9 | 11.3 | 11.2 | 113.8 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 60.2 | 80.7 | 128.0 | 181.0 | 213.4 | 209.8 | 221.9 | 206.5 | 152.0 | 117.4 | 69.7 | 52.7 | 1,693.2 |
Source 1: Met Office [28] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Starlings Roost Weather[29][30] |
Hampstead - Weather Station in North London. The weather station enclosure is the most elevated of any in the London area, and as a result daytime temperatures are typically one degree lower than Heathrow, Kew, Northolt and Greenwich.
Climate data for Hampstead WMO ID: 99139; coordinates 51°33′38″N 0°10′48″W / 51.56052°N 0.17995°W; elevation: 137 m (449 ft); 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1910–2016 | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 15.7 (60.3) |
18.3 (64.9) |
22.8 (73.0) |
27.2 (81.0) |
30.0 (86.0) |
33.7 (92.7) |
34.4 (93.9) |
37.4 (99.3) |
33.9 (93.0) |
28.9 (84.0) |
20.0 (68.0) |
15.6 (60.1) |
37.4 (99.3) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 7.5 (45.5) |
8.1 (46.6) |
10.9 (51.6) |
14.1 (57.4) |
17.3 (63.1) |
20.4 (68.7) |
22.7 (72.9) |
22.3 (72.1) |
19.1 (66.4) |
14.8 (58.6) |
10.6 (51.1) |
7.8 (46.0) |
14.7 (58.5) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 4.9 (40.8) |
5.2 (41.4) |
7.3 (45.1) |
9.8 (49.6) |
12.8 (55.0) |
15.8 (60.4) |
18.0 (64.4) |
17.8 (64.0) |
15.1 (59.2) |
11.6 (52.9) |
7.8 (46.0) |
5.3 (41.5) |
10.9 (51.6) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.3 (36.1) |
2.3 (36.1) |
3.7 (38.7) |
5.5 (41.9) |
8.3 (46.9) |
11.2 (52.2) |
13.3 (55.9) |
13.4 (56.1) |
11.1 (52.0) |
8.3 (46.9) |
5.0 (41.0) |
2.7 (36.9) |
7.3 (45.1) |
Record low °C (°F) | −12.2 (10.0) |
−12.8 (9.0) |
−8.9 (16.0) |
−5.6 (21.9) |
−1.7 (28.9) |
1.7 (35.1) |
4.2 (39.6) |
4.5 (40.1) |
0.6 (33.1) |
−3.3 (26.1) |
−6.1 (21.0) |
−8.4 (16.9) |
−12.8 (9.0) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 69.5 (2.74) |
51.4 (2.02) |
42.8 (1.69) |
49.6 (1.95) |
50.5 (1.99) |
58.5 (2.30) |
50.5 (1.99) |
67.7 (2.67) |
59.1 (2.33) |
78.6 (3.09) |
75.7 (2.98) |
68.3 (2.69) |
722.1 (28.43) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 12.1 | 10.7 | 9.1 | 9.1 | 8.5 | 8.7 | 8.4 | 9.3 | 9.0 | 11.0 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 119.6 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 60.0 | 76.1 | 114.2 | 155.2 | 199.2 | 193.7 | 199.8 | 188.3 | 145.5 | 106.3 | 67.2 | 54.0 | 1,559.4 |
Source 1: Met Office[31] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: KNMI [32] Starlings Roost Weather[33][34] |
Northolt - Airfield Weather Station in the North West of London. Temperature extremes range from 37.7 °C (99.9 °F) in August 2003, down to −16.1 °C (3.0 °F) in January 1962.
Climate data for RAF Northolt WMO ID: 03672; coordinates 51°32′55″N 0°25′01″W / 51.54870°N 0.41689°W; elevation: 40 m (131 ft); 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1948–present | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 16.2 (61.2) |
20.8 (69.4) |
24.1 (75.4) |
28.9 (84.0) |
30.6 (87.1) |
35.0 (95.0) |
40.0 (104.0) |
37.7 (99.9) |
32.7 (90.9) |
29.0 (84.2) |
18.8 (65.8) |
16.8 (62.2) |
40.0 (104.0) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 8.2 (46.8) |
8.8 (47.8) |
11.6 (52.9) |
14.8 (58.6) |
18.1 (64.6) |
21.2 (70.2) |
23.5 (74.3) |
23.1 (73.6) |
20.0 (68.0) |
15.6 (60.1) |
11.3 (52.3) |
8.6 (47.5) |
15.4 (59.7) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.1 (41.2) |
5.4 (41.7) |
7.6 (45.7) |
10.0 (50.0) |
13.2 (55.8) |
16.2 (61.2) |
18.4 (65.1) |
18.1 (64.6) |
15.3 (59.5) |
11.8 (53.2) |
7.9 (46.2) |
5.5 (41.9) |
11.2 (52.2) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.0 (35.6) |
2.0 (35.6) |
3.5 (38.3) |
5.2 (41.4) |
8.3 (46.9) |
11.3 (52.3) |
13.4 (56.1) |
13.2 (55.8) |
10.6 (51.1) |
7.9 (46.2) |
4.5 (40.1) |
2.3 (36.1) |
7.0 (44.6) |
Record low °C (°F) | −16.1 (3.0) |
−13.9 (7.0) |
−8.0 (17.6) |
−4.7 (23.5) |
−2.7 (27.1) |
0.0 (32.0) |
4.4 (39.9) |
3.0 (37.4) |
0.0 (32.0) |
−5.5 (22.1) |
−7.5 (18.5) |
−17.4 (0.7) |
−17.4 (0.7) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 62.9 (2.48) |
49.1 (1.93) |
42.4 (1.67) |
45.6 (1.80) |
51.8 (2.04) |
50.2 (1.98) |
48.6 (1.91) |
56.6 (2.23) |
51.4 (2.02) |
70.2 (2.76) |
71.4 (2.81) |
63.1 (2.48) |
663.3 (26.11) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 11.6 | 10.1 | 9.1 | 9.4 | 8.6 | 8.6 | 8.1 | 9.4 | 8.5 | 10.7 | 11.6 | 11.3 | 117.0 |
Source 1: Met Office [35] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Starlings Roost Weather[36][37] |
Greenwich - Weather Station in South East London located near the river Thames.
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Record high °C (°F) | 16.8 (62.2) |
19.7 (67.5) |
23.3 (73.9) |
25.3 (77.5) |
29.0 (84.2) |
34.5 (94.1) |
35.3 (95.5) |
37.5 (99.5) |
30.2 (86.4) |
26.1 (79.0) |
18.9 (66.0) |
16.4 (61.5) |
37.5 (99.5) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 8.5 (47.3) |
9.2 (48.6) |
12.1 (53.8) |
15.4 (59.7) |
18.6 (65.5) |
21.4 (70.5) |
23.8 (74.8) |
23.3 (73.9) |
20.3 (68.5) |
15.8 (60.4) |
11.6 (52.9) |
8.9 (48.0) |
15.8 (60.4) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.9 (42.6) |
6.2 (43.2) |
8.4 (47.1) |
10.7 (51.3) |
13.8 (56.8) |
16.7 (62.1) |
18.8 (65.8) |
18.7 (65.7) |
15.9 (60.6) |
12.4 (54.3) |
8.8 (47.8) |
6.3 (43.3) |
11.9 (53.4) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 3.4 (38.1) |
3.2 (37.8) |
4.7 (40.5) |
6.0 (42.8) |
9.1 (48.4) |
12.0 (53.6) |
13.9 (57.0) |
14.1 (57.4) |
11.6 (52.9) |
9.0 (48.2) |
6.1 (43.0) |
3.8 (38.8) |
8.1 (46.6) |
Record low °C (°F) | −12.7 (9.1) |
−9.4 (15.1) |
−6.7 (19.9) |
−4.8 (23.4) |
−1.0 (30.2) |
1.1 (34.0) |
5.0 (41.0) |
5.3 (41.5) |
1.1 (34.0) |
−2.1 (28.2) |
−8.0 (17.6) |
−10.5 (13.1) |
−12.7 (9.1) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 43.9 (1.73) |
39.9 (1.57) |
36.5 (1.44) |
38.6 (1.52) |
44.0 (1.73) |
49.3 (1.94) |
36.3 (1.43) |
53.0 (2.09) |
52.4 (2.06) |
58.3 (2.30) |
59.9 (2.36) |
50.7 (2.00) |
562.9 (22.16) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 10.5 | 9.2 | 7.9 | 8.1 | 7.9 | 7.8 | 7.1 | 8.2 | 7.9 | 10.3 | 10.6 | 10.2 | 105.6 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 44.4 | 66.1 | 109.7 | 152.9 | 198.7 | 198.6 | 209.2 | 198.0 | 140.6 | 99.7 | 58.5 | 50.1 | 1,526.4 |
Source 1: Met Office[38][39][40] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Starlings Roost Weather[41][42] |
See also
References
- ^ "Metropolis: 027 London, World Association of the Major Metropolises" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "10-mile Thames flood barrier plan". BBC News. 1 January 2005. Retrieved 30 January 2008.
- ISBN 1-86077-100-9
- ISBN 0-319-21785-X
- ISBN 0-319-21786-8
- ISBN 0-319-21780-9
- ISBN 978-0-319-24164-6
- ISBN 0-319-21988-7
- S2CID 130787135.
- ^ ISBN 0-85272-478-0
- ISBN 0-11-884522-5
- ISBN 0-7518-3400-9
- ISBN 0-7518-3427-0
- ISBN 0-7518-2971-4
- ISBN 0-7518-3228-6
- ISBN 0-7518-3206-5
- ISBN 0-7518-3204-9
- ^ "January 1987 temperature". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
- ^ "January 1962 weather". Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
- ^ Rogers, Simon (20 December 2010). "Winter weather: the coldest places in Britain". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
- ^ "Annual average warmest day". Retrieved 29 November 2012.
- ^ "Average >25c days". Archived from the original on 5 March 2016.
- ^ Saphora Smith (16 May 2022). "London could run out of water in 25 years as cities worldwide face rising risk of drought, report warns". The Independent. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
London already receives about half the amount of rain that falls in New York City, and climate change will increase the frequency and intensity of droughts in the region
- ^ "2003 Sunshine". Archived from the original on 24 July 2011.
- ^ "London Heathrow Airport". Met Office. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
- ^ "Heathrow Airport Extreme Values". KNMI. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
- KNMI. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
- ^ "Kew 1991–2020 averages". Met Office. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
- ^ "Monthly Extreme Maximum Temperature". Starlings Roost Weather. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
- ^ "Monthly Extreme Minimum Temperature". Starlings Roost Weather. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
- ^ "Hampstead 1991–2020 averages". Met Office. Retrieved 6 January 2022.
- ^ "Indices data - Hampstead 1859". KNMI. Retrieved 6 March 2019.
- ^ "Monthly Extreme Maximum Temperature". Starlings Roost Weather. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
- ^ "Monthly Extreme Minimum Temperature". Starlings Roost Weather. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
- ^ "Northolt 1991–2020 averages". Met Office. Retrieved 6 January 2022.
- ^ "Monthly Extreme Maximum Temperature". Starlings Roost Weather. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
- ^ "Monthly Extreme Minimum Temperature". Starlings Roost Weather. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
- ^ "Greenwich 1991–2020 averages". Met Office. Retrieved 20 November 2018.
- ^ "Hot Spell - August 2003". Met Office. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
- ^ "Record Breaking Heat and Sunshine - July 2006". Met Office. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
- ^ "Monthly Extreme Maximum Temperature". Starlings Roost Weather. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
- ^ "Monthly Extreme Minimum Temperature". Starlings Roost Weather. Retrieved 3 February 2023.