History of Pensacola, Florida
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The history of Pensacola, Florida, begins long before the Spanish claimed founding of the modern city in 1698. The area around present-day Pensacola was inhabited by Native American peoples thousands of years before the historical era.
The historical era begins with the arrival of
Etymology
This area was first documented as "Panzacola" in 1686, when a maritime expedition, headed by Juan Enríquez Barroto and Antonio Romero, visited Pensacola Bay in February 1686.
Prehistory
The area was largely devoid of indigenous Native American inhabitants.[8] Given the area's advantages, it was frequently a destination for hunting and fishing by Creek people from present-day southern Alabama and Georgia.
The best-known Pensacola Culture site in terms of
The Fort Walton Mound archaeological site is located about 40 miles east of downtown Pensacola. The mound was built about 850 CE by a regional variation of the Mississippian culture.[10]
The area's recorded history begins in the 16th century, when the first
First Spanish period (1559–1719)
European exploration of the area began in the 16th century. In 1516 Diego Miruelo may have been the first European to sail into Pensacola Bay.[12] Members of the expeditions of Pánfilo de Narváez in 1528 and Hernando de Soto in 1539 visited the bay, during the latter of which Francisco Maldonado recorded its name as the Bay of Ochuse, related to the Indian province.
The first Spanish settlement expedition in the region was large but short-lived, entering the bay on August 15, 1559, and led by Don
In 1693, Mexican Viceroy Gaspar de Sandoval Silva y Mendoza, the
One of the expedition's goals was to determine how flora and fauna in the Pensacola region could benefit the Spanish. Charged with such a task, Siguenza, prone to exaggeration,[12] described a veritable paradise,[12] teeming with food resources and ample economic opportunities. The Mexican savant also wrote detailed descriptions of waterways in the area and described abundant trees on Blackwater River and East River as "lofty and stout, suitable for building ships of any draft".[12] He minimized problems with the site. The Spanish Crown endorsed the settlement of Pensacola Bay on June 13, 1694.[12] A year later, in 1695, Andrés de Arriola inspected both the mouth of the Mississippi River and Pensacola Bay but did not find the bay to be the paradise Sigüenza had described.[12] Preoccupied with King William's War (1689–1697), the Spanish delayed settlement of Pensacola until 1698.[12]
Previously, Tristan de Luna had named the bay as Bahía Santa María de Filipina when he founded the area's first settlement.[12] In 1757 Panzacola was affirmed as the area's name by a royal order of Spanish King Ferdinand VI.
The Spanish resettled Pensacola in November 1698 under the direction of the first governor, Andrés de Arriola.[12] They built three presidios in Pensacola during the following decades, in 1719, 1722 and 1754.[13]
- Presidio Santa Maria de Galve (1698–1719): this included fort San Carlos de Austria (east of present Fort Barrancas) and a village with church; in 1719, the area was captured by the French. A fire broke out in 1722 after a hurricane, and the French burned down the settlement before releasing it to the Spanish. It was abandoned.[13]
- Presidio Isla de Santa Rosa (1722–1752): this was on the western end of Santa Rosa Island near the site of present Fort Pickens. After hurricanes battered the island in 1741 and 1752,[3] the settlers relocated to the mainland.[13] Another hurricane in 1762 destroyed the remnants on the island.[3]
- Presidio San Miguel de Panzacola (1754-1763): following this disastrous hurricane, the Spanish built a third and final settlement, Presidio San Miguel de Panzacola, about five miles east of the first presidio in the present-day historic district of downtown Pensacola.[14]
The present city of Pensacola was established by the Spanish in 1698 as a buffer against
French explorers founded Mobile in 1699, located 59 miles overland to the west, and also on the Gulf of Mexico. This settlement represented competition and a threat to the Spanish, who had opposed the French in the Nine Years' War. The Spanish colonial authorities also discovered that Carolinian traders were entering the colony to trade with the Creek people, establishing informal anti-Spanish alliances. During Queen Anne's War, Creek war parties, aided by Carolinian raiders, launched several raids in the Pensacola region, and besieged the city twice in 1707. These raiding parties also raided settlements belonging to the Pensacola people, who responded by retreating into the cities of Pensacola, Mobile, and St.Augustine.[15]
French period (1719–1722)
Governor of French Louisiana, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, took Pensacola for France on May 14, 1719, arriving with his fleet and a large ground force of allied Indian warriors.[2] The Spanish commander of Pensacola, Metamoras, had not heard that war had been declared between France and Spain, and his garrison was so small that he believed it would be useless to resist. At four o'clock in the afternoon, he surrendered on the conditions that private citizens and property should not be disturbed, and the garrison should be allowed to march out with honors of war and be transported to Havana, Cuba in French vessels.[2] Bienville left a garrison of about sixty men at Pensacola and sailed away.[2]
The French, with small settlements further west at
Second Spanish period (1722–1763)
The area was rebuilt, but it was ravaged by hurricanes in 1752 and 1761. Population growth remained modest during this period, which was characterized by Spanish
British West Florida (1763–1781)
Following
According to a later description of his work:
Pensacola was becoming something more than a garrison town by the time Gauld made this splendid painting. There were now a number of fine houses and structures and an especially impressive Governor's Palace while the fort had been strengthened and made more efficient. It seems likely the town had over two hundred houses made of timber. Pensacola was still, however, mainly a military and trading outpost, its principal link to the outside world being primarily by sea."[16]
After Spain joined the rebels of the American Revolution in 1779, Spanish forces captured East Florida and West Florida, regaining Pensacola. They held this area from 1781 to 1819.[3] Following the War of 1812 (which was ended in the Treaty of Ghent), the United States negotiated with Spain to take control of Florida. In an 1819 Transcontinental Treaty (Adams-Onis) with the United States, Spain renounced its claims to West Florida and ceded East Florida to the U.S. for US$5 million.[3] In 1821, with Andrew Jackson as provisional governor, Pensacola was annexed by the United States.[3]
At the end of the massive French and Indian War of 1756–1763, the British gained access to inland areas as far west as the
During the
Third Spanish period (1781–1819)
The Spanish recaptured Pensacola in 1781 and retained control until 1821 (excepting three short-lived invasions by American General
After exchanges of land with the British following the
After the transfer of the vast
In August 1814, British troops landed in Pensacola during what would be one of the last campaigns of the War of 1812. The British then began to encourage Native American raiding parties on farms and plantations. General Andrew Jackson would use this as a pretext to invade and capture Pensacola in November of that same year.[19]
The residents of the prosperous Alabama and Mississippi territories, eager to avoid being trapped in landlocked states without seaports, agitated to annex more of West Florida. They succeeded in doing so with the aforementioned military aid of General Andrew Jackson. He captured much of West Florida in the 1810s. He briefly returned Pensacola to Spain but areas further west became part of the new states of Mississippi (1817) and Alabama (1819).
In 1819, the United States captured Pensacola again, increasing pressure against Spain. An 1820 Spanish census recorded 181 households, with about one third of mixed race: typically a white man with a woman of black or mulatto ancestry, and their children. There were also some mixed-race residents of Creek ancestry. French and Spanish Creoles were in the majority.[18] In 1821, all of modern Florida was transferred to the United States, which paid Spain for the territory. Residents voted to become part of Alabama. But, officials in Florida and the US determined that Pensacola, then the largest city and most important port, would remain as part of the new Florida Territory of the United States. This established the current boundaries of the state.
Antebellum (1821–1860)
In 1825, the area for the
The Pensacola area is home to three historic U.S. forts, Fort Barrancas, Fort Pickens, and Fort McRee. Barrancas National Cemetery is located here. The city and Fort Barrancas were the site of the 1814 Battle of Pensacola. Fort Pickens was completed in 1834. It is one of the few Southern forts to have been held by the United States throughout the American Civil War.
Andrew Jackson served as Florida's first territorial governor, residing at the capital of Pensacola. He was noted for his persecution of Indians and Creoles, many of whom left the territory. An increasing number of
On March 3, 1845, Florida was admitted to the Union as the 27th state. Its admission had been slowed as the United States struggled to remove the
In the Pensacola area, the local economy grew rich through the lumber industry, based on the abundant forests in the area, ease of shipping with the good harbor, and entrepreneurship. Starting in the 1830s steam power greatly increased the efficiency of the saw mills that produced finished lumber for export. Entrepreneurs included prominent civil and social leaders, including alderman Alexander McVoy, Joseph Forsyth and E. E. Simpson (who jointly owned one of the largest operations in the state), and W. Main L. Criglar (whose combined lumber and shipping interests produced a personal fortune of more than $300,000).[20]
Civil War
On January 10, 1861, Florida became the third state to secede from the Union to join the newly formed Confederate States of America. Fort Pickens, one of three forts guarding the entrance to Pensacola Bay, was held by Federal troops, and remaining Union forces in the city also evacuated there. In the Battle of Santa Rosa Island in October 1861, Fort Pickens repulsed a Confederate advance to remain in Union hands, as it did throughout the war. In May 1862 Pensacola was conquered by U.S. troops when General Braxton Bragg evacuated; most of the city and surrounding area was subsequently burned. Residents evacuated inland to Greenville, Alabama.
Several engagements are noted to have taken place in or around Pensacola, likewise in the nearby city of Milton, Florida.
The Confederate secretary of the Navy, Stephen Mallory, was from Pensacola. He is buried in the city's historic Saint Michael's Cemetery.
The city produced at least two militia companies who fought for the Confederacy, the Pensacola Rifle Rangers, and the Pensacola Guards.[21]
Post-war 19th century
Emancipation and the conclusion of the War were followed throughout the plantation districts of the South by a period of tumultuous struggle over the rights of black laborers, the political rights of African Americans generally and, temporarily, the political rights of those who took up arms against the Union.
Cotton, worked largely by the sharecropper descendants of
Shipping declined in importance, but the military and manufacturing became prominent. Harvesting of fish and other seafood are also vital. Aside from cotton and pine trees, major crops include peanuts, soybeans, and corn. The
Twentieth Century
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2023) |
With strong cultural ties to the old
In 1972, students at the newly
During the early 1970s, a group of students and other Pensacolans published the Gulf Coast Fish Cheer, a newspaper that covered the Vietnam War, race relations, youth culture, civil liberties, and other topics. The paper was a part of the political wave of the period dubbed the New Left.[24]
Since the late twentieth century, there has been dramatic growth in the beach-based tourism industry and rapid development of previously pristine wilderness beaches, particularly those around
Many barrier island areas have been redeveloped for condos and houses, increasing the risk of storm damage, as the islands always shift. Other areas remain undeveloped, and the Gulf Islands National Seashore is protected as a park.
Tourism, based on a working-class Southerners from nearby Alabama and Georgia, led many to call the region the "Redneck Riviera." Upscale locals in Pensacola, and surrounding areas disapproved of expanded tourism, citing problems of increased traffic, demands on public services and infrastructure, and higher property taxes. They talked of preserving the "Emerald Coast." However, nearby communities such as Destin and Panama City Beach embraced the new business opportunities and quickly outgrew their neighbors.[25]
Timeline
Prior to 20th century
- 1698 - Pensacola established by the Spanish.[26]
- 1781 - St. Michael's Roman Catholic Church founded.[27]
- 1805 - Lavalle House built.[28]
- 1821
- 1822 - Legislative Council of the Territory of Florida convenes.[30]
- 1824
- Pensacola incorporated.[31]
- U.S. Territory of Florida capital relocated from Pensacola to Tallahassee.[30]
- 1825 - Pensacola Navy Yard built.[30]
- 1834
- Christ Church built.[27]
- U.S. Fort Pickens built on nearby Santa Rosa Island.[30]
- 1839 - U.S. Fort Barrancas active.[30]
- 1847 - John the Baptist Church built in Hawkshaw.[32]
- 1848 - Hulse house built.[27]
- 1850 - Population: 2,164.
- 1861 - Battle of Pensacola (1861) fought during the American Civil War.
- 1870 - Pensacola and Fort Barrancas Railroad begins operating.
- 1871 - Dorr House built.[28]
- 1878 - Saint Michael's Creole Benevolent Association formed.[32]
- 1880
- Palafox Street fire of 1880.[27]
- Mount Zion Baptist Church founded.[32]
- 1882 - Pensacola and Atlantic Railroad begins operating.
- 1888 - St. Michael's Catholic Church built.[30]
- 1898 - Pensacola Journal newspaper begins publication.[33]
- 1900 - Population: 17,747.[34]
20th century
- 1902 - New Christ Church built.[27]
- 1905
- Great Halloween Night Fire.[35]
- Pensacola High School established.
- Population: 21,505.[34]
- 1907 - City Hallbuilt.
- 1908 - April: Pensacola streetcar strike of 1908 begins.
- 1910 - San Carlos Hotel in business.
- 1913 - Louisville and Nashville Passenger Station and Express Buildingconstructed.
- 1914 - U.S. military
- 1915
- November 5: Military aircraft catapult test-launched from USS North Carolina in Pensacola Bay.[37]
- Sacred Heart Hospital opens.[38]
- Rotary Club formed.[38]
- 1916 - October 18: Hurricane hits Pensacola.[39]
- 1924 - Pensacola News Journal newspaper in publication.
- 1925 - Saenger Theatre in business.[40]
- 1926
- September: 1926 Miami hurricane occurs.
- WCOA (AM) radio begins broadcasting.[41]
- 1929 - Pensacola Federation of Colored Women's Clubs organized.[42]
- 1930s - Lillie Anna James school established.[32]
- 1931 - Pensacola Bay Bridge opens.
- 1933
- Pensacola Historical Society formed.[43]
- Temple Beth-El synagogue rebuilt.
- 1940 - Population: 37,449.
- 1948 - Pensacola Junior Collegeestablished.
- 1949 - Booker T. Washington Junior College established.[32]
- 1952 - December 14: Snowfall occurs.[39]
- 1953
- Trader Jon's opens.[44]
- WEAR-TV (television) begins broadcasting.[45]
- Palm Drive-In cinema in business.[40]
- 1958 - Escambia High School opens.
- 1960 - Escambia Sun-Press newspaper in publication.[33]
- 1962 - National Naval Aviation Museum established.[43]
- 1964
- University of West Florida opens.[26]
- Flora-Bama Lounge and Package in business near city.
- 1967
- 1970 - Population: 59,507.
- 1975 - Roman Catholic Diocese of Pensacola–Tallahassee established.[47]
- 1976
- February 5: Escambia High School riotoccurs.
- February 26: Racial unrest.[48]
- February 5:
- 1986 - Pensacola City Hall rebuilt.
- 1991 - Civil War Soldiers' Museum established.[43]
- 1993 - March 10: Murder of David Gunn.
- 1994 – Joe Scarborough elected Representative for Florida's 1st Congressional District
- 1998 - City website online (approximate date).[49][50]
21st century
- 2001 - U.S. representative for Florida's 1st congressional district.[51]
- 2003 - Trader Jon's closes.[44]
- 2004 - September: Hurricane Ivan occurs.
- 2005 - August: Hurricane Katrina occurs.
- 2010
- Pensacola State College (PSC) active.
- Population: 51,923.[52][53]
- 2011 - Ashton Hayward becomes mayor.
- 2015 - Population: 52,752 (estimate).[54]
- 2016 - Palafox Historic Business District is placed on the National Register of Historic Places.[55]
- 2017 - Matt Gaetz becomes U.S. representative for Florida's 1st congressional district.[56]
See also
- List of mayors of Pensacola, Florida
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Escambia County, Florida
- Gainesville, Jacksonville, Tallahassee
References
- ^ a b c d e John E. Worth, The Tristán de Luna Expedition, 1559-1561, http://uwf.edu/jworth/spanfla_luna.htm Archived 2016-06-30 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d "Floripedia: Pensacola, Florida" (history from "The Founding of Pensacola" 1904), University of South Florida, 2005, webpage: USF-Pensac2.
- ^ Santa Rosa Island - a History (Part 1)" (regional history), Jane Johnson, NavarreBeach.org webpage: NBhist
- ^ a b c d e "The Tristan de Luna Expedition" (history), Steve Pinson, Pensacola Archeology Lab, DeLuna-PAL.
- ^ Worth, John (2018-08-14). "Mission San Joseph de Escambe". University of West Florida.
- ^ Leatherwood, Art (February 22, 2010). "Matagorda Bay". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 17 May 2010.
- JSTOR 44208909. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
- ^ Worth, John (2018-08-14). "Pensacola Colonial Frontiers Project". University of West Florida.
- ^ Archaeology of Native North America, 2010, Dean R. Snow, Prentice-Hall, New York. pp. 248–249
- ^ Gibbon, Guy E.; Ames, Kenneth M. (1998). Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America: An Encyclopedia. Taylor and Francis. p. 293.
- ^ a b c "History" (Luna colony at Ochuse/Pensacola), State of Florida, 2007, webpage: FLH-history: describes Tristán de Luna preparations, landing August 15, 1559.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q "The Spanish Presence in Northwest Florida--1513 to 1705" (history), University of West Florida, 2006, webpage: UWF-hist Archived 2012-12-09 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ a b c "Presidio Isla de Santa Rosa" (history & excavations), University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL, 2003, webpage: UWF-SantaRosa Archived 2007-03-19 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Division of Anthropology and Archaeology (2018-08-14). "Presidio Santa Maria de Galve". University of West Florida.
- JSTOR 30139893.
- ^ Gauld, George. 1767. British Pensacola, Painting, Colonial Pensacola. 1974. Page 78.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8071-0013-4.
- ^ a b Jane E. Dysart, "Another Road to Disappearance: Assimilation of Creek Indians in Pensacola, Florida during the Nineteenth Century", The Florida Historical Quarterly, Vol. 61, No. 1 (July 1982), pp. 37-48, Published by: Florida Historical Society, Article Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30146156, accessed 26 June 2014
- ^ "Pensacola November 7-9 1814" (PDF). battlefields.org. American Battlefield Trust. Retrieved 17 January 2023.
- ^ Eisterhold, John A. (January 1973). "Lumber and Trade in Pensacola and West Florida: 1800-1860". The Florida Historical Quarterly. 51 (3): 267. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
- ISBN 9780813017709.
- ^ Foner, Eric. Reconstruction: America's unfinished revolution, 1863-1877. Harper Collins, 2011.
- ^ "Pensacola News Journal 29 Jun 1997, page 90". Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2022-12-21.
- ^ Satterwhite, Christopher (Summer 2016). "The Gulf Coast Fish Cheer: Radicalism and the Underground Press in Pensacola, Florida, 1970-1971". The Florida Historical Quarterly. 95 (1): 71–74. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
- ^ Patrick Moore, "'Redneck Riviera' or 'Emerald Coast?' Using Public History to Identify and Interpret Community Growth Choices in Florida's Panhandle," Gulf South Historical Review (2003) 18#2 pp 60-91.
- ^ a b c "Timeline". Florida Memory. State Library and Archives of Florida. Retrieved May 5, 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f Federal Writers' Project 1939.
- ^ a b "Museums". Pensacola: University of West Florida Historic Trust. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
- ^ "Florida Newspaper Chronology". Florida Journalism History Project. Gainesville: University of Florida George A. Smathers Libraries. Retrieved May 5, 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f g Hellmann 2006.
- ^ Overview of Municipal Incorporations in Florida (PDF), LCIR Report, Tallahassee: Florida Legislative Committee on Intergovernmental Relations, February 2001, archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-04-28
- ^ a b c d e McCarthy 2007.
- ^ a b "US Newspaper Directory". Chronicling America. Washington DC: Library of Congress. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
- ^ a b "Population of Cities and Towns", Census of the State of Florida...1905, Tallahassee: Capital Pub. Co., 1906
- ^ Appleyard, John. "Halloween 1905 proved to be a frightful night for downtown Pensacola | Appleyard". Pensacola News Journal. Retrieved 2022-12-23.
- ^ "Celebrating 100 years", Pensacola News Journal, January 17, 2014
- ISBN 978-1-60819-738-5.
- ^ a b "Pensacola's Rotary celebrates 100 years", Pensacola News Journal, June 26, 2015
- ^ a b "This Day in Weather History". Aberdeen, South Dakota: National Weather Service. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
- ^ a b "Movie Theaters in Pensacola, FL". CinemaTreasures.org. Los Angeles: Cinema Treasures LLC. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
- OCLC 2459636.
- ^ "Presidents of Pensacola's National Association of Colored Women's Clubs". Pensacola: Ella L. Jordan Home. November 23, 2014.
- ^ ISBN 978-0759100022.
- ^ a b Moon, Troy. "Trader Jon's makes return to Pensacola (kinda)". Pensacola News Journal. Retrieved 2022-12-23.
- OCLC 10512206
- ^ "About Us". Pensacola: University of West Florida Historic Trust. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
- ^ "Chronology of Catholic Dioceses: USA". Norway: Roman Catholic Diocese of Oslo. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-313-34112-0.
- ^ "City of Pensacola, Florida". Archived from the original on December 5, 1998 – via Internet Archive, Wayback Machine.
- OCLC 40169021. Archived from the originalon August 24, 2000.
- hdl:2027/msu.31293021143627 – via HathiTrust.
- ^ "Pensacola city, Florida". QuickFacts. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved April 21, 2017.
- ^ Florida Legislative Office of Economic and Demographic Research; U.S. Census Bureau (2011), "City of Pensacola", 2010 Census Detailed City Profiles
- ^ Germuska, Joe (ed.). "Pensacola, FL". Censusreporter.org. USA. Retrieved May 3, 2017.
- ^ "Palafox Historic Business District" (PDF). Nps.gov. Retrieved October 30, 2017.
- GovTrack. Washington DC: Civic Impulse, LLC. Archived from the originalon April 11, 2017. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
Bibliography
- Richards, John R., ed. (1886). "Pensacola". Florida State Gazetteer and Business Directory. New York: South Publishing Company. OCLC 12186532.
- Waring, George E. Jr., ed. (1887), "Florida: Pensacola", Report on the Social Statistics of Cities: Southern and the Western States, Washington DC: Government Printing Office, pp. 185–190
- Pensacola Directory. R. L. Polk & Co.1905.
- "Pensacola". Florida Gazetteer and Business Directory 1907-1908. R. L. Polk & Co. 1907.
- ISBN 9781623760090– via Google Books.
- JSTOR 30166297.
- Pensacola City Planning Department (1963), Existing Land Use Study, Pensacola, Florida, archived from the original on 2017-04-28 – via University of North Florida
- Eisterhold, John A. "Lumber and Trade in Pensacola and West Florida: 1800-1860," Florida Historical Quarterly (1973) 51#3 pp 267–280.
- Pearce, George F. "Pensacola Naval Air Station 1914-1986," Pensacola History Illustrated (1986) 2#1 pp 2–9.
- Rea, Robert R. "Urban Problems and Responses in British Pensacola," Gulf Coast Historical Review (1987) 3#1 pp 43–62.
- Weddle, Robert S. "Kingdoms Face to Face: French Mobile and Spanish Pensacola, 1699-1719," Alabama Review (2002) 55#2 pp 84–95
- Moore, Patrick. "'Redneck Riviera' or 'Emerald Coast?' Using Public History to Identify and Interpret Community Growth Choices in Florida's Panhandle," Gulf South Historical Review (2003) 18#2 pp 60–91.
- Hellmann, Paul T. (2006). "Florida: Pensacola". Historical Gazetteer of the United States. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-94859-7.
- McCarthy, Kevin M. (2007). "Escambia County: Pensacola". African American Sites in Florida. Sarasota: ISBN 978-1-56164-385-1.
- Denham, James M., "Crime and Punishment in Antebellum Pensacola," Florida Historical Quarterly, 90 (Summer 2011), 13–33.
- Clavin, Matthew J. "Interracialism and Revolution on the Southern Frontier: Pensacola in the Civil War," Journal of Southern History, 80 (Nov. 2014), 791–826.
External links
- "Pensacola". Viva Florida: History Happened Here. Tallahassee: Florida League of Cities.
- "Hilton-Green Research Room". Pensacola: University of West Florida Historic Trust. (Local history)
- "(Pensacola)". Florida Memory. Florida Department of State, Division of Library and Information Services.
- Items related to Pensacola, Florida, various dates (via Digital Public Library of America)