History of navigation
The history of navigation, or the history of
.Antiquity
Indo-Pacific
Navigation in the
Mediterranean
Sailors navigating in the Mediterranean made use of several techniques to determine their location, including staying in sight of land and understanding of the winds and their tendencies.
Written records of navigation using stars, or
By the third century BC the Greeks had begun to use the Little Bear,
The voyage of the
Nautical charts and textual descriptions known as sailing directions have been in use in one form or another since the sixth century BC.[14] Nautical charts using stereographic and orthographic projections date back to the second century BC.[14]
In 1900, the Antikythera mechanism was recovered from Antikythera wreck. This mechanism was built around 1st century BC.
Phoenicia and Carthage
The
Asia
In the
The
The sea lanes between
In China between 1040 and 1117, the
Nautical charts called
Age of exploration
The commercial activities of
Combined with the empirical observations gathered in oceanic seafaring, mapping winds and currents, Portuguese explorers took the lead in the long distance oceanic navigation,[38] opening later, at the beginning of the 16th century, a network of ocean routes covering the Atlantic, the Indian and the western Pacific oceans, from the North Atlantic and South America, to Japan and Southeast Asia.
The Portuguese campaign of Atlantic navigation is one of the earliest examples of a systematic scientific large project, sustained over many decades. This program of study recruited several men of exceptional ability, had a well-defined set of objectives, and was open to experimental confirmation through the success or otherwise of subsequent navigations.
Initial Period - Portuguese exploration of the Atlantic: Duarte Pacheco Pereira
The main problem in navigating, by sail alone, back from the south of the
In the 'Esmeraldo's introduction:
"what belongs to cosmography and seamanship I hope to spell out (…) ...how does a headland or place lay in respect of another; and this so that this work takes order and grounding; and the coast may be more safely navigated; and likewise the knowledge of the lands and where lay the shallows which for this it is much necessary to know; also of the sounders performed in some places what their depth is and also the different of the bottoms, if they are mudd or sand, or stone, or pebbles, or sharp edges, or shells (burgao = Livona pica) or what quality is such sounding; and being known what is the distance from the shallows to the coastline; and likewise the tides, if they are from northeast and southwest like those from our spain, or is they are from north and south, or west and east, or northwest and southeast, which for the purpose of entering and exiting ports and river-mouths are absolutely necessary; and also de measurements from the poles from which can be known how many degrees are the places apart and the latitude relative to the equator; and also the nature of the people of this ethiopia (Africa) and their mode of life and I will also talk about the commerce that could be had in this land[42][43][44]
The repositories for the observations made were the 'Roteiros' or maritime route-maps. The earliest Roteiro known is part of a collection of several manuscripts by Valentim Fernandes (1485) with the coast up to the delta of the Niger river in present-day Nigeria, followed by the 'Esmeraldo...' (1505–08) cited above; several 'roteiros' included in the 'Livro de Marinharia e Tratado da Agulha de Marear' (Treatise of Seamanship and of the magnetic needle) by João de Lisboa (1514); roteiros included in the 'Regimento de Navegacão...' (Regiment of Navigation) by André Pires (1520); roteiros for Brazil by Pero Lopes de Sousa (1530–32), Roteiro da Carreira da Índia' (Route-book of the travel to/from India) by Diogo de Afonso (1536); and the roteiros by D. João de Castro (see below): Lisbon to Goa (1538), Goa to Diu (northwest India) (1538–39, and the Red Sea (1541)[45]
The extent of the explorations undertaken is again reported in the 'Esmeraldo...', on the 2nd page of the 2nd chapter:
"… Year of our Lord of 1498 where Your Highness commanded us to explore the western area going past the greatness of the ocean sea; where is found and explored a very large firm land with many and large adjoining islands, which extends from seventy degrees of latitude from the equator line towards the arctic pole (…) and goes further of twenty eight degrees of latitude from the equator line towards the antarctic pole (…) from any place in Europe or Africa and going across all the ocean in a straight line to the west by the rules of seamanship for thirty six degrees of longitude, which are six hundred and forty eight leagues of route counting at eighteen leagues per degree." [46][47]
It is unlikely that the exploration of the open seas of the southern Atlantic was made in a single voyage, particularly when the route taken by Vasco da Gama in 1497 was significantly different from the one taken by Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500, each being adapted to the season of departure.[48][49] This adaptation shows an understanding of the cycle of yearly variations in winds and currents in the southern Atlantic. Furthermore, there were systematic expeditions pushing into the western Northern Atlantic (Teive, 1454; Vogado, 1462; Teles, 1474; Ulmo, 1486)[48] The documents relating to the supplying of ships, and the ordering of sun declination tables for the southern Atlantic for as early as 1493–1496,[50] all suggest a well planned and systematic activity. The most significant consequence of this systematised knowledge was the negotiation of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, moving the line of demarcation 270 leagues to the west (from 100 to 370 leagues west of the Azores) with the consequence of affirming the Portuguese claim to Brazil and its dominance of the Atlantic.
Mature Period - Portuguese exploration of the Indic: João de Castro
By the early 16th century there were regular voyages between Lisbon and the Indic. The knowledge of the Atlantic developed by accretion, with the systematic exploration moving into the Indic. The corollary of this activity involved a group of remarkable men established around the academic (mathematician, cosmographer)
"nam se fezeram indo a acertar: mas partiam os nossos mareantes muy ensinados e prouidos de estromentos e regras de astrologia e geometria que sam as cousas que os cosmographos ham dadar apercebidas (...) e leuaua cartas muy particularmente rumadas e na ja as de que os antigos vsauam" (were not done by chance: but our seafarers departed well taught and provided with instruments and rules of astrology (astronomy) and geometry which were matters the cosmographers would provide (...) and they took charts with exact routes and no longer those used by the ancient).[54]
Nunes credibility rests on being personally involved in the instruction of pilots and senior seafarers from 1527 onwards.[52] Moreover, it was Nunes who developed instruments and instructions for the systematic work of João de Castro, as stated by Castro in several of his letters.[55][56]
While his study of the coast, navigation and winds and currents is rigorous and accurate, it is his research on terrestrial magnetism in the Atlantic and Indian oceans that came to be celebrated:"D. Joao de Castro carried out a series of experiments that succeeded in detecting phenomena, in particular related to magnetism and the magnetic needle on board. It should be assumed that such knowledge to Pedro Nunes, of course the direct inspiration of all the observations he has done in his travels. When on August 5, 1538, D. João de Castro decided to determine the latitude of Mozambique, found the cause that dictated the astonishing uneasiness of needles; noted the deviation of the needle, discovering it 128 years before Dennis Guillaume (1666) of Nieppe, which is recorded in History of Sailing as if he were the first to know about this phenomenon. His point near Baçaim, on December 22, 1538, a magnetic phenomenon, for which there were variations of the needle because of the proximity of certain rocks, confirmed four centuries later, was called local attraction. D. João de Castro refuted the theory that the variation of magnetic declination is not formed by geographic meridians. His comments are the most important record of values of magnetic declination in the Atlantic and Indian oceans, in the sixteenth century, and useful for the study of terrestrial magnetism. It was one of the personalities of this century European experimental science, linking the importance of this study with the sailing."[57]
King
In the 15th and 16th centuries, the
The compass, a cross-staff or astrolabe, a method to correct for the altitude of Polaris and rudimentary nautical charts were all the tools available to a navigator at the time of Christopher Columbus.[19] In his notes on Ptolemy's geography, Johannes Werner of Nuremberg wrote in 1514 that the cross-staff was a very ancient instrument, but was only beginning to be used on ships.[36]
Prior to 1577, no method of judging the ship's speed was mentioned that was more advanced than observing the size of the vessel's bow wave or the passage of sea foam or various floating objects.[59] In 1577, a more advanced technique was mentioned: the chip log.[19] In 1578, a patent was registered for a device that would judge the ship's speed by counting the revolutions of a wheel mounted below the ship's waterline.[19]
Accurate time-keeping is necessary for the determination of longitude.
Continuous accumulation of navigational data, along with increased exploration and trade, led to increased production of volumes through the Middle Ages.[14] "Routiers" were produced in France about 1500; the English referred to them as "rutters."[14] In 1584 Lucas Waghenaer published the Spieghel der Zeevaerdt (The Mariner's Mirror), which became the model for such publications for several generations of navigators.[14] They were known as "Waggoners" by most sailors.[14]
In 1537, Pedro Nunes published his Tratado da Sphera. In this book he included two original treatises about questions of navigation. For the first time the subject was approached using mathematical tools. This publication gave rise to a new scientific discipline: "theoretical or scientific navigation".
In 1545, Pedro de Medina published the influential Arte de navegar. The book was translated into French, Italian, Dutch and English.[36]
In 1569,
In 1594,
In 1599,
In 1599–1600, Edward Wright's World Chart of 1599 was the first map under the Mercator projection drawn by an Englishman for English navigation. The map prominently displays the Queen Elizabeth I Privy Seal; the only one of her realm to carry her private seal. The Molyneux 1592 globe is the only other cartography with her Privy Seal. Both identify
In 1631, Pierre Vernier described his newly invented quadrant that was accurate to one minute of arc.[61] In theory, this level of accuracy could give a line of position within a nautical mile of the navigator's actual position.
In 1635,
In 1637, using a specially built
Modern times
In 1714 the British Commissioners for the discovery of longitude at sea came into prominence.[65] This group, which existed until 1828, offered grants and rewards for the solution of navigational problems.[65] Between 1737 and 1828, the commissioners disbursed some £101,000.[65] The government of the United Kingdom also offered significant rewards for navigational accomplishments in this era, such as £20,000 for the discovery of the Northwest Passage and £5,000 for the navigator that could sail within a degree of latitude of the North Pole.[65] A widespread manual in the 18th century was Navigatio Britannica by John Barrow, published in 1750 by March & Page and still being advertised in 1787.[66]
A highly important breakthrough for the accurate determination of longitude came with the invention of the
In 1757,
In 1891 radios, in the form of wireless telegraphs, began to appear on ships at sea.[69]
In 1899 the R.F. Matthews was the first ship to use wireless communication to request assistance at sea.
By 1904 time signals were being sent to ships to allow navigators to check their chronometers.[71] The U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office was sending navigational warnings to ships at sea by 1907.[71]
Later developments included the placing of
1921 saw the installation of the first radiobeacon.[71]
The first prototype shipborne radar system was installed on the USS Leary in April 1937.[73]
On November 18, 1940, Mr. Alfred L. Loomis made the initial suggestion for an electronic air navigation system which was later developed into LORAN (long range navigation system) by the Radiation Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,[74] and on November 1, 1942, the first LORAN System was placed in operation with four stations between the Chesapeake Capes and Nova Scotia.[74]
In October 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik.
On July 14, 1974 the first prototype Navstar GPS satellite was put into orbit, but its clocks failed shortly after launch.[75] The Navigational Technology Satellite 2, redesigned with cesium clocks, started to go into orbit on June 23, 1977.[75] By 1985, the first 11-satellite GPS Block I constellation was in orbit.[75]
Satellites of the similar Russian GLONASS system began to be put into orbit in 1982, and the system is expected to have a complete 24-satellite constellation in place by 2010.[75] The European Space Agency expects to have its Galileo with 30 satellites in place by 2011–12 as well.[75][needs update]
Integrated bridge systems
Electronic integrated bridge concepts are driving future navigation system planning.[76] Integrated systems take inputs from various ship sensors, electronically display positioning information, and provide control signals required to maintain a vessel on a preset course.[76] The navigator becomes a system manager, choosing system presets, interpreting system output, and monitoring vessel response.[76]
Notes
- ^ The precise time of Austronesians reaching Madagascar is unknown, at the earliest is the earliest centuries BCE (Blench, “The Ethnographic Evidence for Long-distance Contacts”, p. 432.), the latest is no earlier than 7th century CE (Adelaar, “The Indonesian Migrations to Madagascar”, p. 15.).
- Hyperboreans) had been reaching the Mediterranean for some centuries. Pytheas is the first known scientific visitor and reporter of the arctic.
- ^ Chinese vessels during this era were essentially fluvial (riverine), they did not build true ocean-going fleets until the 10th century Song dynasty. A UNESCO study argues that the Chinese were using square sails during the Han dynasty; only in the 12th century did the Chinese adopt the Austronesian junk sail.[22]
See also
- Air navigation
- Austronesian navigation
- Celestial navigation
- Galileo positioning system
- Geodetic system
- Great-circle distance explains how to find that quantity if one knows the two latitudes and longitude
- History of geodesy
- History of latitude
- History of longitude
- Ma Jun
- Shen Kuo
- List of explorers
- Maritime history of the United States
- Marshall Islands stick chart
- Navigation
- Polynesian navigation
- Portuguese nautical science
- South-pointing chariot
- Franz Xaver, Baron Von Zach, a scientific editor and astronomer, first located many places geographically
- Rhumbline grid
- Nikola Tesla
Citation
- ISBN 9781920942854.
- ISBN 0415100542.
- ^ Bloomberg, 1678:793
- ^ a b c Bloomberg, 1997:77
- ^ Homer, Odyssey, 273-276
- ^ a b Bloomberg, 1997:72
- ^ a b Taylor, 1971:12
- ^ Taylor, 1971:10
- ^ Taylor, 1971:43
- ^ Taylor, 1971:46-47
- ^ a b Bilic, 2009:126
- ^ a b c Bunbury & Beazley 1911, p. 703.
- ^ Strabo's Geography - Book II Chapter 3, LacusCurtius.
- ^ a b c d e f Bowditch, 2003:2.
- ^ Donald Harden, The Phoenicians, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, page 168
- ^ B.H. Warmington, op. cit., page 79
- ^ John Locke, "The works of John Locke: in nine volumes, Volume 9" The history of navigation, p. 385, Printed for C. and J. Rivington, 1824
- ^ ROBERT KERR, F.R.S. & F.A.S.- GENERAL HISTORY and COLLECTION of VOYAGES and TRAVELS, ARRANGED in SYSTEMATIC ORDER: Forming a Complete History of the Origin and Progress of Navigation, Discovery, and Commerce, by Sea and Land, from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time. Edin. (1755-1813)
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Martin 1911, p. 284.
- S2CID 162840685– via JSTOR.
- ISBN 0415100542.
- ISBN 978-92-9223-414-0.
- S2CID 21753825.
- PMID 15288523.
- ^ Kumar, Ann (2012). 'Dominion Over Palm and Pine: Early Indonesia’s Maritime Reach', in Geoff Wade (ed.), Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies), 101–122.
- ^ Otto Chr. Dahl, Malgache et Maanjan: une comparaison linguistique, Egede-Instituttet Avhandlinger, no. 3 (Oslo: Egede-Instituttet, 1951), p. 13.
- ^ There are also some Sulawesi loanwords, which Adelaar attributes to contact prior to the migration to Madagascar: See K. Alexander Adelaar, “The Indonesian Migrations to Madagascar: Making Sense of the Multidisciplinary Evidence”, in Truman Simanjuntak, Ingrid Harriet Eileen Pojoh and Muhammad Hisyam (eds.), Austronesian Diaspora and the Ethnogeneses of People in Indonesian Archipelago, (Jakarta: Indonesian Institute of Sciences, 2006), pp. 8–9.
- ^ Dick-Read, Robert (2005). The Phantom Voyagers: Evidence of Indonesian Settlement in Africa in Ancient Times. Thurlton. pp. 41–42.
- ^ Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", The Journal of Economic History 29 (1), p. 79-96.
- ^ ThinkQuest: Library, “Early Navigational Instruments,” http://library.thinkquest.org/C004706/contents/1stsea/nap/page/n-2.html# Archived 2011-08-08 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Christides, Vasilios (1988). "Naval History and Naval Technology in Medieval Times the Need for Interdisciplinary Studies". Byzantion. 58 (2): 309–332. JSTOR 44171055.
- ISBN 0521547245.
- ^ Boissoneault, Lorraine (23 July 2015). "L'Anse Aux Meadows & the Viking Discovery of North America". JSTOR Daily.
- ^ Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (July 1954), p.181
- ^ Frederic C. Lane, “The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass,” The American Historical Review, Vol. 68, No. 3. (April 1963), p.615ff.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Martin 1911, p. 285.
- ^ Almagià, discussing the copy of another map by Fra Mauro, in the Vatican Library: Roberto Almagià, Monumenta cartographica vaticana, (Rome 1944) I:32-40.
- ISBN 0-415-94577-1
- ^ http://ksuweb.kennesaw.edu/~jdirnber/oceanography/LecuturesOceanogr/LecCurrents/LecCurrents.html (retrieved 13/06/2020)
- ^ https://kids.britannica.com/students/assembly/view/166714 (retrieved 13/06/2020)
- ISBN 978-989-689-656-0
- ^ “ho que toca ha cosmografia e marinharia por extenso espero dizer (…) ... como jaz um promontorio ou lugar com outro e isto porque esta obra leve hordem e fundamento e ha costa mais seguramente se possa navegar e o mesmo as conhesensas das terras e asy honde estam as baixas que para isto he muito necessario saber se; tambem das sondas que á em alguns lugares em quanta altura som e asy as deferensas dos fundos .s. se he vasa ou area, ou pedra, ou saibro, ou harestas, ou burgao ou de que calidade ha tal fonda he e sendo conhecida quantas leguas aveera daly a terra e o mesmo as marés, se som de nordeste he sudueste asy como as de nossa espanha, ou se som do norte, o sul, ou de lest e oest, ou de noroest e suest, as quais para entrarem e sairem nas barras, e bocas dos Rios som forsadamente necessarias; e asim as alturas de cada hum dos pollos por onde se pode saber quantos graaos se cada lugar apartam e ladeza da equinocial e tambem a natureza da jente desta ethiopia e ho seu modo de viver e asy direi do comercio que nesta terra pode haver”
- ^ "Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis". Internet Archive. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
- ^ "Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis" (PDF). Biblioteca Nacional Digital (BND). Retrieved 28 June 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-989-689-656-0.
- ^ ...hano de nosso senhor de mil quatrocentos noventa e oito donde nos vossa alteza mandou descobrir ha parte oucidental passando alem ha grandeza do mar ociano honde he hachada e naveguada huma tam grande terra firme com muitas e grandes Ilhas adjacentes a ella que se estende a satenta graaos de ladeza da linha equinocial contra o polo artico (…) e vay alem em vinte e oito graaos e meo de ladeza contra o pollo antratico (…) de qualquer outro lugar da europa e dafrica e dasia hatravesando alem todo ho oceano direitamente ha oucidente ou a loest segundo ordem de marinharia por trinta e seis graaos de longura que seram seiscentas e quarenta e oyto leguoas de caminho contando a dezoyto leguoas por graao.
- ^ "Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis". Internet Archive. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
- ^ a b Carlos Viegas Gago Coutinho, As Primeiras Travessia Atlânticas - lecture, Academia Portuguesa de História, 22/04/1942 - in: Anais (APH) 1949, II serie, vol.2
- ^ Carlos Viegas Gago Coutinho, A Viagem de Bartolomeu Dias, Anais (Clube Militar Naval) May 1946
- ^ Luis Adão da Fonseca, Pedro Álvares Cabral - Uma Viagem, INAPA, Lisboa, 1999, p.48
- ^ Hooykaas, Reijer (1979). The Erasmian Influence on D. João de Castro. Coimbra: Imprensa de Coimbra.
- ^ MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. Retrieved 13/06/2020
- ^ W.G.L. Randles, "Pedro Nunes and the Discovery of the Loxodromic Curve, or How, in the 16th Century, Navigating with a Globe had Failed to Solve the Difficulties Encountered with the Plane Chart," Revista da Universidade Coimbra, 35 (1989), 119-30.
- ^ Pedro Nunes Salaciense, Tratado da Esfera, cap. 'Carta de Marear com o Regimento da Altura' p.2 - https://archive.org/details/tratadodaspherac00sacr/page/n123/mode/2up (retrieved 13/06/2020)
- ISBN 978-989-626-800-8.
- ^ Sanceau, Elaine (1954). Cartas de D. João de Castro (PDF). Lisboa: Agência Geral do Ultramar. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
- ^ Rangel, Artur José Ruando (2009). O magnetismo terrestre no roteiro de Lisboa a Goa: as experiências de D. João de Castro. Lisbon: Repositório da Universidade de Lisboa Communities and Collections Faculdade de Letras (FL) FL - Dissertações de Mestrado.
- ^ Semedo de Matos, Jorge (2015). "Tábuas Solares na náutica portugues dos séculos XV e XVI". In Contente Domingues, Francisco (ed.). D'Aquém, d'Além e d'Ultramar. Homenagem a António Dias Farinha. Lisboa: CHUL. pp. 1235–1250.
- ^ ISBN 0-85429-143-1
- ISBN 9781846145704.
- ^ a b c Martin 1911, p. 287.
- ^ "the errors I poynt at in the chart, have beene heretofore poynted out by others, especially by Petrus Nonius, out of whom most part of the first Chapter of the Treatise following is almost worde for worde translated;" - in: Edward Wright
- ^ Martin 1911, p. 288.
- ^ a b Martin 1911, p. 289.
- ^ a b c d e f Martin 1911, p. 290.
- ^ ODNB entry for John Barrow (fl. 1735–1774): Retrieved 18 July 2011. Subscription required.
- ^ Newton, I., “Newton's Octant” (posthumous description), Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, vol. 42, p. 155, 1742
- ISBN 9780608404066. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
...what I have stated, will serve to show the absolute necessity of having firstrate chronometers, or the lunar observations carefully attended to; and never omitted to be taken when practicable.
- ^ a b "Short History of Radio" (PDF). fcc.gov. Retrieved 2007-04-22.
- ^ a b Howeth, Captain Linwood S. (1963). "XXII". History of Communications-Electronics in the United States Navy. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Ships and Office of Naval History. pp. 261–265.
- ^ a b c Bowditch, 2002:8.
- ^ "Gustav Dalén, The Nobel Prize in Physics 1912: Biography". nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
- ^ Howeth, Captain Linwood S. (1963). "XXXVIII". History of Communications-Electronics in the United States Navy. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Ships and Office of Naval History. pp. 443–469.
- ^ a b Howeth, Captain Linwood S. (1963). "Appendix A. Chronology of Developments in Communications and Electronics". History of Communications-Electronics in the United States Navy. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Ships and Office of Naval History. pp. 443–469.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Bedwell, Don (2007). "Where Am I?". American Heritage Magazine. 22 (4). Archived from the original on 2007-04-28. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
- ^ a b c Bowditch, 2002:1.
References
- Bilic, Tomislav (March 2009). "The Myth of Alpheus and Arethusa and Open-Sea Voyages on the Mediterranean--Stellar Navigation in Antiquity". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 38 (1): 116–132. S2CID 162185043.
- Bloomberg, Mary; Göran Henricksson (1997). "Evidence for the Minoan origins of stellar navigation in the Aegean". Actes de la Vème conférence annuelle de la SEAC. Gdansk. pp. 69–81.
- ISBN 0-939837-54-4. Archived from the originalon 2007-06-24.
- Bunbury, Edward Herbert; Beazley, Charles Raymond (1911). Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 703–704. . In
- Cutler, Thomas J. (December 2003). Dutton's Nautical Navigation (15th ed.). Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-248-3.
- Department of the Air Force (March 2001). Air Navigation (PDF). Department of the Air Force. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-03-25. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
- Great Britain Ministry of Defence (Navy) (1995). Admiralty Manual of Seamanship. ISBN 0-11-772696-6.
- Homer. link; link (eds.). The Odyssey. Book V.
- Maloney, Elbert S. (December 2003). ISBN 1-58816-089-0.
- Martin, William Robert (1911). Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 284–289. . In
- National Imagery and Mapping Agency (2001). Publication 1310: Radar Navigation and Maneuvering Board Manual (7th ed.). Bethesda, MD: U.S. Government Printing Office. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2007-03-07.
- Taylor, E. G. R. (1971). link; link (eds.). The haven-finding art; A History of Navigation from Odysseus to Captain Cook. New York: American Elsevier Publishing Company, INC.
Further reading
- Hiawatha Bray (2014). You Are Here: From the Compass to GPS, the History and Future of How We Find Ourselves. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0465032853.
- Juan Francisco Maura (2021). Españoles y portugueses en Canadá en tiempos de Cristóbal Colón (PDF). Universidad de Valencia.