History of software

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

History of computing
Hardware
Software
Computer science
Modern concepts
By country
Timeline of computing
Glossary of computer science

Software is a set of programmed instructions stored in the memory of stored-program digital computers for execution by the processor. Software is a recent development in human history and is fundamental to the Information Age.

Analytical Engine in the 19th century are often considered the founder of the discipline. However, the mathematician's efforts remained theoretical only, as the technology of Lovelace and Babbage's day proved insufficient to build his computer. Alan Turing is credited with being the first person to come up with a theory for software in 1935, which led to the two academic fields of computer science and software engineering
.

The first generation of software for early stored-program digital computers in the late 1940s had its instructions written directly in binary code, generally written for mainframe computers. Later, the development of modern programming languages alongside the advancement of the home computer would greatly widen the scope and breadth of available software, beginning with assembly language, and continuing through functional programming and object-oriented programming paradigms.

Before stored-program digital computers

Origins of computer science

See also: History of computer science

Computing as a concept goes back to ancient times, with devices such as the abacus, the Antikythera mechanism, Astrolabes, Mechanical Astronomical clocks and Mechanical Calculators.[1] The Antikythera mechanism is an example for a highly complex ancient mechanical Astronomical device.[2]

However, these devices were pure hardware and had no software - their computing powers were directly tied to their specific form and engineering.

Software requires the concept of a general-purpose processor - what is now described as a Turing machine - as well as computer memory in which reusable sets of routines and mathematical functions comprising programs can be stored, started, and stopped individually, and only appears recently in human history.

The first known computer

Bernoulli numbers for machine instruction.[3][3] However, this remained theoretical only - the lesser state of engineering in the lifetime of these two mathematicians proved insufficient[citation needed
] to construct the Analytical Engine.

The first modern theory of software was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem).[4]

This eventually led to the creation of the twin academic fields of computer science and software engineering, which both study software and its creation. Computer science is more theoretical (Turing's essay is an example of computer science), whereas software engineering is focused on more practical concerns.

However, prior to 1946, software as we now understand it – programs stored in the memory of

human computers.[5] [6] Engineers would give the programmers blueprints of the ENIAC wiring and expected them to figure out how to program the machine.[7] The women who worked as programmers prepped the ENIAC for its first public reveal, wiring the patch panels together for the demonstrations.[8] [9][10] Kathleen Booth developed Assembly Language in 1950 to make it easier to program the computers she worked on at Birkbeck College.[11]

Grace Hopper and UNIVAC

Grace Hopper worked as one of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I.[12] She later created a 500-page manual for the computer.[13] Hopper is often falsely credited with coining the terms "bug" and "debugging," when she found a moth in the Mark II, causing a malfunction;[14] however, the term was in fact already in use when she found the moth.[14] Hopper developed the first compiler and brought her idea from working on the Mark computers to working on UNIVAC in the 1950s.[15] Hopper also developed the programming language FLOW-MATIC to program the UNIVAC.[14] Frances E. Holberton, also working at UNIVAC, developed a code[clarification needed], C-10, which let programmers use keyboard inputs and created the Sort-Merge Generator in 1951.[16][17] Adele Mildred Koss and Hopper also created the precursor to a report generator.[16]

Early days of computer software (1948–1979)

In his manuscript "A Mathematical Theory of Communication",

punched cards
into a computer. With such methods, if a mistake was made, the whole program might have to be loaded again from the beginning.

The very first time a stored-program computer held a piece of software in electronic memory and executed it successfully, was 11 am 21 June 1948, at the University of Manchester, on the Manchester Baby computer. It was written by Tom Kilburn, and calculated the highest factor of the integer 2^18 = 262,144. Starting with a large trial divisor, it performed a division of 262,144 by repeated subtraction and then checked if the remainder was zero. If not, it decremented the trial divisor by one and repeated the process. Google released a tribute to the Manchester Baby, celebrating it as the "birth of software".

FORTRAN was developed by a team led by John Backus at IBM in the 1950s. The first compiler was released in 1957. The language proved so popular for scientific and technical computing that by 1963 all major manufacturers had implemented or announced FORTRAN for their computers.[18][19]

COBOL was first conceived of when Mary K. Hawes convened a meeting (which included Grace Hopper) in 1959 to discuss how to create a computer language to be shared between businesses.[16] Hopper's innovation with COBOL was developing a new symbolic way to write programming.[13] Her programming was self-documenting.[20] Betty Holberton helped edit the language which was submitted to the Government Printing Office in 1960.[21] FORMAC was developed by Jean E. Sammet in the 1960s.[21] Her book, Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals (1969), became an influential text.[21][22]

Apollo Mission

Main article: Apollo Guidance Computer
Margaret Hamilton next to a stack of code she and her team wrote for the Apollo Mission computers.

The

Margaret Hamilton, who had previously been involved with software reliability issues when working on the US SAGE air defense system, was also part of the Apollo software team.[23][26] Hamilton was in charge of the onboard flight software for the Apollo computers.[23] Hamilton felt that software operations were not just part of the machine, but also intricately involved with the people who operated the software.[25] Hamilton also coined the term "software engineering" while she was working at NASA.[27]

The actual "software" for the computers in the Apollo missions was made up of wires that were threaded through magnetic cores.[28] Where the wire went through a magnetic core, that represented a "1" and where the wire went around the core, that represented a "0."[28] Each core stored 64 bits of information.[28] Hamilton and others would create the software by punching holes in punch cards, which were then later processed on a Honeywell mainframe where the software could be simulated.[23] When the code was "solid," then it was sent to be woven into the magnetic cores at Raytheon, where women known as "Little Old Ladies" worked on the wires.[23] The program itself was "indestructible" and could even withstand lightning strikes, which happened to Apollo 12.[28] Wiring the computers took several weeks to do, freezing software development during that time.[29]

While using the simulators to test the programming, Hamilton discovered ways that code could produce dangerous errors when human mistakes were made while using it.[23] NASA believed that the astronauts would not make mistakes due to their training.[30] Hamilton was not allowed to program code to prevent errors that would lead to system crash, so she annotated the code in the program documentation.[23] Her idea to add error-checking code was rejected as "excessive."[23] However, exactly what Hamilton predicted would happen occurred on the Apollo 8 flight, when human error caused the computer to wipe out all of the navigational data.[23]

Bundling of software with hardware and its legal issues

Later, software was sold to multiple customers by being

Digital Equipment and IBM. When a customer bought a minicomputer, at that time the smallest computer on the market, the computer did not come with pre-installed software, but needed to be installed by engineers employed by the OEM.[citation needed
]

This bundling attracted the attention of US antitrust regulators, who sued IBM for improper "tying" in 1969, alleging that it was an antitrust violation that customers who wanted to obtain its software had to also buy or lease its hardware in order to do so. However, the case was dropped by the US Justice Department, after many years of attrition, as it concluded it was "without merit".[31]

Data General also encountered legal problems related to bundling – although in this case, it was due to a civil suit from a would-be competitor. When Data General introduced the Data General Nova, a company called Digidyne wanted to use its RDOS operating system on its own hardware clone. Data General refused to license their software and claimed their "bundling rights". The US Supreme Court set a precedent called Digidyne v. Data General in 1985 by letting a 9th circuit appeal court decision on the case stand, and Data General was eventually forced into licensing the operating system because it was ruled that restricting the license to only DG hardware was an illegal tying arrangement.[32] Even though the District Court noted that "no reasonable juror could find that within this large and dynamic market with much larger competitors", Data General "had the market power to restrain trade through an illegal tie-in arrangement", the tying of the operating system to the hardware was ruled as per se illegal on appeal.[33]

In 2008, Psystar Corporation was sued by Apple Inc. for distributing unauthorized Macintosh clones with OS X preinstalled, and countersued. One of the arguments in the countersuit - citing the Data General case - was that Apple dominates the market for OS X compatible computers by illegally tying the operating system to Apple computers. District Court Judge William Alsup rejected this argument, saying, as the District Court had ruled in the Data General case over 20 years prior, that the relevant market was not simply one operating system (Mac OS) but all PC operating systems, including Mac OS, and noting that Mac OS did not enjoy a dominant position in that broader market. Alsup's judgement also noted that the surprising Data General precedent that tying of copyrighted products was always illegal had since been "implicitly overruled" by the verdict in the Illinois Tool Works Inc. v. Independent Ink, Inc. case.[34]

Packaged software (Late 1960s-present)

An industry producing independently packaged software - software that was neither produced as a "one-off" for an individual customer, nor "bundled" with computer hardware - started to develop in the late 1960s.[35]

Unix (1970s–present)

Main article: History of Unix

Unix was an early operating system which became popular and very influential, and still exists today. The most popular variant of Unix today is macOS (previously called OS X and Mac OS X), while Linux is closely related to Unix.

The rise of Microcomputers

In January 1975, Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems began selling its Altair 8800 microcomputer kit by mail order. Microsoft released its first product Altair BASIC later that year, and hobbyists began developing programs to run on these kits. Tiny BASIC was published as a type-in program in Dr. Dobb's Journal, and developed collaboratively.

In 1976, Peter R. Jennings for instance created his Microchess program for MOS Technology's KIM-1 kit, but since it did not come with a tape drive, he would send the source code in a little booklet to his mail-order customers, and they would have to type the whole program in by hand. In 1978, Kathe and Dan Spracklen released the source of their Sargon (chess) program in a computer magazine. Jennings later switched to selling paper tape, and eventually compact cassettes with the program on it.

It was an inconvenient and slow process to type in source code from a computer magazine, and a single mistyped – or worse, misprinted – character could render the program inoperable, yet people still did so. (Optical character recognition technology, which could theoretically have been used to scan in the listings rather than transcribe them by hand, was not yet in wide use.)

Even with the spread of

cassette tapes
in the 1980s for distribution of commercial software, free programs (such as simple educational programs for the purpose of teaching programming techniques) were still often printed, because it was cheaper than making and attaching cassette tapes to magazines.

However, eventually a combination of four factors brought this practice of printing complete source code listings of entire programs in computer magazines to an end:

  • programs started to become very large
  • floppy discs
    started to be used for distributing software, and then came down in price
  • regular people started to use computers – and wanted a simple way to run a program
  • computer magazines started to include cassette tapes or floppy discs with free or trial versions of software on them

Very quickly, commercial software started to be

Open Letter to Hobbyists in 1976.[36]

1980s–present

Before the microcomputer, a successful software program typically sold up to 1,000 units at $50,000–60,000 each. By the mid-1980s, personal computer software sold thousands of copies for $50–700 each. Companies like Microsoft,

localized versions of already successful products.[38]

A pivotal moment in computing history was the publication in the 1980s of the specifications for the IBM Personal Computer published by IBM employee Philip Don Estridge, which quickly led to the dominance of the PC in the worldwide desktop and later laptop markets – a dominance which continues to this day. Microsoft, by successfully negotiating with IBM to develop the first operating system for the PC (MS-DOS), profited enormously from the PC's success over the following decades, via the success of MS-DOS and its add-on-cum-successor, Microsoft Windows. Winning the negotiation was a pivotal moment in Microsoft's history.

Free and open source software

Main article: History of free and open-source software

Recent developments

App stores

Main article: App store

Applications for mobile devices (cellphones and tablets) have been termed "apps" in recent years. Apple chose to funnel

App Store
, and thus both vet apps, and get a cut of every paid app sold. Apple does not allow apps which could be used to circumvent their app store (e.g. virtual machines such as the Java or Flash virtual machines).

The Android platform, by contrast, has multiple app stores available for it, and users can generally select which to use (although Google Play requires a compatible or rooted device).

This move was replicated for desktop operating systems with

Windows Store
(for Windows). All of these platforms remain, as they have always been, non-exclusive: they allow applications to be installed from outside the app store, and indeed from other app stores.

The explosive rise in popularity of apps, for the iPhone in particular but also for Android, led to a kind of "gold rush", with some hopeful programmers dedicating a significant amount of time to creating apps in the hope of striking it rich. As in real gold rushes, not all of these hopeful entrepreneurs were successful.

Formalization of software development

The development of curricula in computer science has resulted in improvements in software development. Components of these curricula include:

  1. Object Oriented programming[39]
  2. Data structures[40]
  3. Analysis of Algorithms[41]
  4. Formal languages[42] and compiler construction[43]
  5. Computer Graphics Algorithms[44]
  6. Sorting and Searching[45]
  7. Optimization and Statistics[47]
  8. Machine Learning[49]

How software has affected hardware

As more and more programs enter the realm of firmware, and the hardware itself becomes smaller, cheaper and faster as predicted by Moore's law, an increasing number of types of functionality of computing first carried out by software, have joined the ranks of hardware, as for example with graphics processing units. (However, the change has sometimes gone the other way for cost or other reasons, as for example with softmodems and microcode.)

Most hardware companies today have more software programmers on the payroll than hardware designers[citation needed], since software tools have automated many tasks of printed circuit board (PCB) engineers.

Computer software and programming language timeline

The following tables include year by year development of many different aspects of computer software including:

  1. High level languages[50][51]
  3. Operating systems[52]
  5. Networking software and applications[53]
  7. Computer graphics hardware, algorithms and applications[54][55]
  9. Spreadsheets
  11. Word processing
  13. Computer aided design[56]

1971–1974

1971 1972 1973 1974
Programming
languages		 CDL
KRL
SUE		 C
INTERCAL
PL/M
Prolog
Smalltalk
SQL		 COMAL
LIS
ML
Speakeasy-3		 BASIC FOUR
CLU
GRASS
PROSE
Operating
systems		 DEC
RSTS-11
 Data General
RDOS		 Soviet ALGOL 68 DEC
DOS-11
Computer
networks		 Wozniak's
Blue Box
Bob Metcalfe develops
Ethernet
Computer
graphics		 Newell & Sancha visible
surface algorithm		 Catmull & Straber
develop z-buffer
CAD/CAM MCS founded ADAM Auto-Draft
Tektronix 4014

1975–1978

1975 1976 1977 1978
Programming
languages		 ABC
Altair BASIC
CS-4
Modula
Scheme
SAS
Smalltalk
-76		 Blue
Standard MUMPS
Yellow
IDL
SMALL
VisiCalc
SQL
Operating
systems		 CP/M Cambridge CAP
1BSD
 2BSD
Apple DOS
Computer
networks		 Telenet packet
switching
Computer
graphics		 EDS founded
Antialiasing
Word
processors		 Electric Pencil
AppleWriter
CAD/CAM Solid modeling McDonnell Douglas
buys
Unigraphics
 Forerunner to CATIA Raster graphics display

1979–1982

1979 1980 1981 1982
Programming
languages
REXX
Vulcan dBase
-II
C with classes
CBASIC
IBM BASICA
 Draco
PostScript
Speakeasy-IV
Operating
systems		 Atari DOS 86-DOS MS-DOS 1
Acorn MOS		 Commodore DOS
Computer
networks		 Usenet TCP/IP
Computer
graphics		 Silicon Graphics
founded
Word
processors
Wordstar
 WordPerfect
for DG Mini		 Bank Street
AppleWriter II

WordStar 3.0
WordPerfect for DOS

Spreadsheet VisiCalc Lotus 1-2-3
CAD/CAM IGES VersaCAD
Dassault Systems
 Autodesk founded

1983–1986

1983 1984 1985 1986
Programming
languages
Korn Shell
Objective-C
occam
True BASIC
Turbo Pascal
Framework FRED
Framework II FRED
Informix-4GL
LabVIEW
Miranda
Object Pascal
PROMAL
Operating
systems		 MS-DOS 2
Lisa Office
SunOS 1		 MS-DOS 3
System Software		 Windows 1.0
Atari TOS
AmigaOS
AIX 1
Computer
networks		 ARPANET splits
off MILNET
Novell NetWare
Research In Motion
founded
NSFNET
connects
5 Supercomputers
Computer
graphics		 ATI founded Intel 82786
coprocessor
Word
processors		 Word 1 for DOS Word 1 for Mac WordPerfect 4.2
for DOS
Spreadsheet Excel for Mac
CAD/CAM Autodesk releases
AutoCAD 1.2,1.3,1.4		 AutoCAD 2
Parametric Technology
 AutoLISP

1987–1990

1987 1988 1989 1990
Programming
languages		 Ada ISO 8652
Turbo Basic
Framework III FRED
LPC
Modula-3
PowerBASIC
Turbo Pascal OOP
VisSim
FL
Z Shell
Operating
systems		 Windows 2.0 MS-DOS 4
Windows 2.1x
OS/2
A/UX
 EPCO Windows 3.0
Computer
networks		 Morris worm World Wide Web
starts		 HTML
Computer
graphics		 JPEG and GIF Pixar's Tin Toy
wins Oscar		 AutoDesk 3D Studio
Word
processors		 Microsoft Works for DOS
PC Magazine
 Reviews
55 Packages		 WordPerfect 5.1
Word for Windows		 Microsoft Office for Windows
Spreadsheet Excel for Windows Quattro Pro
CAD/CAM Deneba releases
Canvas X
AutoCAD 9		 CATIA 3
AutoCAD 10
Parametric
T-Flex		 Visionary Design Systems founded
AutoCAD 11
ACIS 1

1991–1994

1991 1992 1993 1994
Programming
languages
Framework IV FRED
 Turbo Pascal
Dylan
Transcript
Self

ZPL
ANS Forth
ANSI Common Lisp
Claire
Pike
RAPID
Operating
systems		 MS-DOS 5
Linux
Windows 3.1x
386BSD
 MS-DOS 6
Solaris
 AIX 4.0, 4.1
Computer
networks		 Mosaic web browser
NetWare 4
 Netscape Navigator
Computer
graphics		 OpenGL Nvidia founded
Word
processors		 Microsoft Works Novell buys WordPerfect
CAD/CAM
Unigraphics
 CADAM & CATIA
begin unification		 AutoCAD 12 Simple Vector
Format

1995–1998

1995 1996 1997 1998
Programming
languages
Ada 95
ColdFusion
Delphi
Java
JavaScript
LiveScript
PHP
Ruby
 Curl
Lasso
NetRexx
OCaml
Perl Data Language
WebDNA
Squeak Smalltalk
Tea
Rebol
UnrealScript
Operating
systems
Digital UNIX
 Windows NT 4.0
Palm OS		 Inferno
Mac OS 7.6
Mac OS 8
Solaris 7
64-bit
Computer
networks		 The research proposal

for Google was formed.

Inter@ctive Pager
NetWare 4
 Netscape Navigator
Computer
graphics		 Pixar Goes Public
after Toy Story
3Dfx Voodoo
ATI Rage Pro
Voodoo Banshee
Word
processors		 Word 95 for Windows
Corel buys WordPerfect
from Novell
CAD/CAM MicroStation Advanced
solid modeling		 Canvas 5 ISO 13567
AutoCAD 14		 Dassault Systems buys
Matra Datavision products

1999–2002

1999 2000 2001 2002
Programming
languages
GameMaker Language
Harbour
XSLT
Visual Basic .NET
RPG IV
 Gosu
Io
Operating
systems		 Mac OS X Server 1.0
Mac OS 9
Windows ME
Mac OS X Public Beta
 v10.0 Cheetah
v10.1 Puma
Windows XP
10.2 Jaguar
Computer
networks		 BlackBerry 850
NetWare 4
 Netscape Navigator
Computer
graphics		 S3 Savage 4
GeForce 256
R100
)		 Nvidia Kyro II
GeForce 3
Word
processors		 Sun buys Star Division
CAD/CAM
Pro/Engineer
2000		 AutoCAD 2000 EDS buys SDRC
Revit

2003–2006

2003 2004 2005 2006
Programming
languages		 Factor
Nemerle
Scala
Squirrel
Little b

Subtext
Ada 2005
F#
Seed7
Windows PowerShell
Operating
systems		 v10.3 Panther
Red Hat
Enterprise Linux
Windows Server 2003
Ubuntu 5
Windows XP Professional x64 Edition
Computer
networks		 802.11g
Apple Safari		 Gmail
Facebook founded
Mozilla Firefox
BlackBerry Pearl 8100

2007–2010

2007 2008 2009 2010
Programming
languages		 Clojure
Fantom
Fortress
LOLCODE
Oberon-07
Vala		 Genie
Pure		 CoffeeScript
Go
Idris
Parasail		 Chapel
RPG Open Access
Rust
Operating
systems		 Windows Vista
v10.5 Leopard
 Android Windows 7
v10.6 Snow Leopard
Android 1.5 "Cupcake"
Android 1.6 "Donut"
Android 2.0–2.1 "Eclair"		 Android 2.2 "Froyo"
Android 2.3 "Gingerbread"
Computer
networks		 Google Chrome
Chromium		 Wi-Fi
802.11n
Computer
graphics		 Assassin's Creed Up Cloth
Simulation		 Avatar wins
"Best Picture"
Word
processors		 Oracle buys
OpenOffice from Sun		 Oracle releases
Apache Software Foundation
CAD/CAM Siemens buys UGS

2011–2014

2011 2012 2013 2014
Programming
languages		 Dart
Ada 2012
Elixir
Julia
TypeScript

CryEngine#CryEngine 3 (BeamNG.drive)

Xojo Hack
Swift
Operating
systems
v10.7 Lion
Android 3.x "Honeycomb"
Android 4.0 "Ice Cream Sandwich"
 Windows 8
v10.8 Mountain Lion
Android 4.1.x–4.2.x "Jelly Bean"		 v10.9 Mavericks
Windows 8.1
Android 4.3 "Jelly Bean"
Android 4.4 "KitKat"		 v10.10 Yosemite
Android 5.0 "Lollipop"
Computer
networks
802.11ac
Computer
graphics		 Hugo wins Oscar
Visual Effects		 CryEngine3 and its 3D soft body physics

See also

References

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  7. ^ Light 1999, p. 470.
  8. ^ Light 1999, p. 472.
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  11. ^ Connolly, Cornelia; Hall, Tony; Lenaghan, Jim (2018-01-10). "The women who led the way in computer programming". RTE.ie. Retrieved 2018-11-25.
  12. ^ Smith 2013, p. 6.
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  14. ^ a b c Gürer 1995, p. 176.
  15. ^ Ceruzzi 1998, p. 84-85.
  16. ^ a b c Gürer 1995, p. 177.
  17. ^ "Frances Holberton, Pioneer in Computer Languages, Dies". The Courier-Journal. December 12, 2001. Retrieved November 24, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
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  19. ^ R.W. Bemer (1969). A politico-social history of Algol, Annual Review in Automatic Programming, pp 151-237. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
  20. ^ Ceruzzi 1998, p. 92.
  21. ^ a b c Gürer 1995, p. 179.
  22. ^ "Computer Authority to Speak Here". The Times. April 9, 1972. Retrieved October 13, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h i Harvey IV, Harry Gould (13 October 2015). "Her Code Got Humans on the Moon—And Invented Software Itself". WIRED. Retrieved 2018-11-25.
  24. ^ "The Lines of Code That Changed Everything; Apollo 11, the JPEG, the first pop-up ad, and 33 other bits of software that have transformed our world". Slate. October 14, 2019. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
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  26. ^ "Margaret Hamilton". Computer History Museum. Retrieved 2018-11-25.
  27. ^ "Meet Margaret Hamilton, the scientist who gave us "software engineering"". IEEE Software Magazine | IEEE Computer Society. 2018-06-08. Retrieved 2018-11-25.
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  29. ^ Mindell 2008, p. 157.
  30. ^ Mindell 2008, p. 160.
  31. ISBN 978-0-7637-3468-8
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  32. JSTOR 1372482
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  33. ^ Justice WHITE, with whom Justice BLACKMUN joins, dissenting.
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  37. ^ Caruso, Denise (1984-04-02). "Company Strategies Boomerang". InfoWorld. pp. 80–83. Retrieved 10 February 2015.
  38. ISSN 0190-8286
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  39. ^ Booch, Grady (1997). Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications. Addison-Wesley.
  40. ^ Peter Brass. (2008) Advanced Data Structures, Cambridge University Press
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  42. Jeffrey D. Ullman, (1979) Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation
  43. ^ Aho, Alfred V., Sethi, Ravi, and Ullman, Jeffrey D. (1988). Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools. Addison-Wesley.
  44. ^ Shirley, Peter. (2009) Fundamentals of Computer Graphics – 3rd edition
  45. ^ Knuth, Donald. (1998) The Art of Computer Programming: Volume 3: Sorting and Searching
  46. William T. Vetterling, Brian P. Flannery. (2007) Numerical Recipes 3rd Edition: The Art of Scientific Computing
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  48. ^ Russell, Stuart J. and Peter Norvig (2009) Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd Edition)
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  51. ^ Wexelblat, Richard L. History of Programming Languages
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  55. ^ Ferguson, R. Stuart. (2013) Practical Algorithms for 3D Computer Graphics
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Sources

External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_software&oldid=1220853914"