History of the Jews in Odesa

The history of the Jews in Odesa dates to 16th century. Since the modern city's founding in 1795, Odesa has been home to one of the largest population of Jews in what is today Ukraine. They comprised the largest ethno-religious group in the region throughout most of the 19th century and until the mid-20th century.

Background

Jews have been a part of the region's economic activities for many centuries. Starting in 16th century, Jews from the Polish Crown had been settling in what is today southern Ukraine, working as merchants, importers and translators among the Cossacks in the Zaporozhian Sich. They were also active in exporting goods from Crimea to the mainland and owned a substantial share of the stores and taverns in the region. After the abolition of the Zaporozhian Sich in 1775, when Russians took control over the area, Jews moved to the newly established coastal towns, one of them being^{[2]: 34–35} Khazhibei, which was renamed Odesa in 1795.^[2]: 24

The early Jewish settlers in the region were possibly

By 1799, the Jewish population of the city numbered 317, comprising 187 males and 130 females.[a] Around this period, there were multiple Jewish religious institutions, including a burial society, a synagogue, and a school for orphans named Talmud Torah. A hekdesh (workhouse) was built and a Kehillah (commune) was organised.^[2]: 35

Immigration to the region happened in two distinct waves during the first two decades of 19th century, on which the remote and newly formed Jewish community relied heavily for its growth. As

Jewish participation in commerce played an important role in the city, despite the number of Jews declining from 240 in 1794 to 135 in 1797. According to a report from the latter year, the Jews possessed most of the city's commercial capital and dominated commodity trade in items such as silk, cotton, wool, hardware, iron, and shoes and largely controlled the export of salt. Many Jews also worked for the Russian army as petty traders or artisans while they were stationed in the fortress. However, only two Jews were wealthy enough to register themselves under the kuptsy (merchants) category in 1801. The richer Jews lived largely in the centre of the city, while the poor were concentrated in Moldavanka and the Peresyp district.^{[2]: 39 [5]: 166}

Second wave

The second wave of settlers, who came from Volhynia, Podilia, White Russia and the town of Brody, arrived immediately following the first one.^[6]: 197 These new settlers grew aware of the potential importance of the Russian Black Sea port and were trying to profit from fluctuations on the grain market.^[2]: 36 More arrivals of Jewish families came from city of Kherson.

In contrast to the first wave, where people came individually, the second wave was characterized by arrival of families. Between 1809 and 1819, Odesa become a city of international importance, which gave the Jewish community in the region a wide range of opportunities. The process of immigration also weakened the normally strict adherence to religious activities. For example, on one evening in 1817, the city's rabbi Berish Ben Yisrael was beaten to death in the streets by a group of Jews who were unhappy with stringent observation of ritual law.^[7]: 23

Galician Jews

Around the 1830s, Galician Jews dominated the roles of middlemen and agents in the grain trade of the city, while also being employed as bankers, merchants, and brokers, with 86% of brokers in Odesa being Jewish.^{[3]: 29 [2]: 43–} Emerging as the wealthiest sector of the Jews, they took control of local Kehillah.^[8]: 100 Even after the Russian government had dissolved all Jewish Kehillah in 1844, the Odesa Kehillah continued to function as a semi-autonomous body in the region, whose meetings were held at regular intervals.^[2]: 43

Between 1837 and 1844, the number of Jewish merchants who were members of the kuptsy category increased from 169 to 221. In 1842, 228 businesses, 67 factories and workshops, and 26 crockery stores in the city were owned by Jews. By 1850, Jews had become the fastest-growing group in city commerce and constituted its majority − out of 5,466 individuals engaged in the commercial economy in 1851, 2,907 (53.2%) were Jews.^[2]: 43

In 1826, Galician Jews opened a modern elementary school, which taught secular as well as Jewish subjects.^[b] Despite the opposition of Jewish traditionalists, headed by Moshe Tsvi,^[c] this act was supported by city authorities. In the first year, over 250 students had enrolled in the school. Max Lilienthal noted that in 1842 the school had around 400–500 students. In 1852, when the school was merged into the state school system, this number increased to 2,500.^{[2]: 46 [9]: 23}

Brodsky Synagogue

The Brodsky Synagogue c. 1865 (top) and in 2014 (bottom)

In the 1840s, the

In 1863, the Brodsky Synagogue announced its commitment to build a new structure. The purchase of a dedicated lot and construction cost 35,646 rubles, contributed by 197 individuals. It was designed by architect Joseph N. Kollovich in the Gothic Florentine style. Built with local limestone, the synagogue, which became the largest in the southern regions of the Russian Empire, was completed in 1863^[13] and served as a local landmark of Moorish architecture. The Brodsky Synagogue become the most prominent synagogue in Odesa and the first modern synagogue in the Russian Empire.^{[3]: 26 [2]}

The 19th century

Under the reign of Nicholas I, the persecution of Jews became official. The major provisions regarding Jews under his reign included: conscription of Jews, including their children, which was passed in 1827; provisions regarding travel and settlement restrictions, signed into law in 1835; abolition of Qahal system in 1844; expulsions of Jewish populations from Kyiv, Kherson, and Sevastopol; and bans regarding use of Hebrew and Yiddish in public. The Tsar also issued an 1844 decree providing for creation of new Jewish schools, similar to district and governmental schools, which were aimed at assimilation of Jews.^[14]

Due to the blockade of Odesa port during the

During 1860s, the city become a center of modern Jewish intelligentsia.^[2]: 71 With Yiddish being spoken by almost a third of the population, the city rose as a centre of Yiddish literature during the 1860s, playing a large role in the cultural transformation of Russian Jewry. Many of the most successful Jewish institutions existed in Odesa, which attracted many Jewish intellectuals from across Russia.^{[d][2]: 3 [3]}

The community had, however, fallen victim to increased tensions with other nationalities,

Despite the efforts to promote Zionism and subsequent emigration, however, the share of Jews in the population of Odesa remained fairly constant, at about 35%. Even after World War I and the Russian Civil War, there were more than 150,000 Jews in Odesa, constituting 36.7% of the total population.^[14]

Second World War and beyond

During the

Approximately 25,000 Odesan Jews were murdered on the outskirts of the city and over 35,000 deported; this came to be known as the Odesa massacre. Most of the atrocities were committed during the first six months of the occupation and perpetrated by Einsatzgruppen death squads. By 17 October 1941, 80% of the 210,000 Jews in the region had been killed.^[23] This was in contrast to Jews in Romania proper, where the majority survived.^[24]

When the Nazi forces had lost ground in the Eastern Front, the Romanian administration amended its policy and declined to deport the remaining

Since the 1970s, the majority of the remaining Jewish population emigrated in two distinct aliyahs, one in the 1970s and the other after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Emigrants went mainly to Israel, but some also moved to the Jewish Autonomous Oblast or other countries, shrinking the Jewish community in the region.^[26]

Historical demographics

From 1880 to 1920, Odesa had the second largest Jewish population in the Russian Empire.^[27][28]

During its founding year (1795), the city's population was recorded at 2,500 people. In 1848, the city's population had risen to over 90,000 people, making it the third-largest city in the Russian Empire.^[29] This growth was due to mass inflows of immigrants, leading to increases of population from 86,729 in 1849 to 193,500 in 1873. In 1826, the Jews comprised 89% of the total population in the city.^[2]: 41 The population rose to 404,000 in 1892, with Jews comprising the second-largest group.^[2] There were 198,233 Russians followed by 124,511 Jews (49.09% and 30.83% of the population, respectively). However only 38.5% of the Jews were born in the city. Accordingly the Jewish population of southern provinces in New Russia had increased by 333% between 1844 and 1880, and Jews comprised around 5.6% of the total population of Russia.^[2]: 32

Gallery

Synagogues

• 
  Brodsky Synagogue
• 
  Cold Synagogue
• 
  Ohr Somayach Synagogue
• 
  Beit Chabad Synagogue
• 
  Nakhlas Elieser Synagogue
• 
  New Market Synagogue
• 
  Synagogue on Mala Arnautska
• 
  Synagogue at Moldavanka
• 
  Karaite Kenesa

Other buildings

• 
  Main building of the Jewish Hospital in Odesa
• 
  Union Concert Hall, built by the Mutual Association of Jewish clerks
• 
  Building of former Trud Technical School
• 
  House of the Jewish Society
• 
  Museum of the History of Odesa Jews
• 
  Holocaust Museum in Odesa

Footnotes