Ivory-billed woodpecker
Ivory-billed woodpecker | |
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Photograph of a male ivory-billed woodpecker leaving the nest as the female returns, taken on the Singer Tract, Louisiana, April 1935, by Arthur A. Allen | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Piciformes |
Family: | Picidae |
Genus: | Campephilus |
Species: | C. principalis
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Binomial name | |
Campephilus principalis | |
Subspecies | |
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Estimated range of the ivory-billed woodpecker prior to 1860 (solid line) and in 1891 (hatched area) – by Edwin Hasbrouck | |
Synonyms | |
Picus principalis Linnaeus, 1758 |
The ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) is a
The bird's preferred diet consists of large beetle larvae, particularly wood-boring
It is, or was, the largest woodpecker in the United States, and one of the largest in the world, with a total length of 48 to 53 cm (19 to 21 in) and a typical wingspan of 76 cm (30 in). In adults the bill is ivory in color, hence the bird's common name, while in juveniles it is chalky white. The bird has been found in habitat including dense swampland, comparatively open old-growth forest and, in Cuba, upland pine forests. Both parents work together to dig out a tree cavity roughly 15–70 feet (4.6–21.3 m) from the ground to create the nest, the typical depth of which is roughly 50 cm (20 in).
In the 21st century, reported sightings and analyses of audio and visual recordings were published in peer-reviewed scientific journals as evidence that the species persists in
Taxonomy
The ivory-billed woodpecker was first described as Picus maximus rostra albo (
Ornithologists recognize two subspecies of this bird:
- American ivory-billed woodpecker (C. p. principalis), native to the southeastern United States
- Cuban ivory-billed woodpecker (C. p. bairdii), native to Cuba, including Isla de la Juventud[13]
The two look similar, with the Cuban bird somewhat smaller,[14] some variations in plumage with the white dorsal strips extending to the bill, and the red crest feathers of the male being longer than its black crest feathers, while the two are of the same length in the American subspecies.[15]
Some controversy exists over whether the Cuban ivory-billed woodpecker is more appropriately recognized as a separate species. A 2006 study compared DNA samples taken from specimens of both ivory-billed woodpeckers, along with the imperial woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis), a larger but otherwise very similar bird. It concluded not only that the Cuban and American ivory-billed woodpeckers are genetically distinct, but also that they and the imperial form a North American clade within Campephilus that appeared in the mid-Pleistocene.[16] The study does not attempt to define a lineage linking the three birds, although it does imply that the Cuban bird is more closely related to the imperial.[16] The American Ornithologists' Union Committee on Classification and Nomenclature has said it is not yet ready to list the American and Cuban birds as separate species. Lovette, a member of the committee, said that more testing is needed to support that change, but concluded, "These results will likely initiate an interesting debate on how we should classify these birds."[17]
"Ivory-billed woodpecker" is the official name given to the species by the
Description
The ivory-billed woodpecker is one of the largest woodpeckers in the world at roughly 51 centimetres (20 in; 1.67 ft) long and 76 centimetres (30 in; 2.49 ft) in wingspan. It is the largest woodpecker in its range. The closely related imperial woodpecker (C. imperialis) of western Mexico is the largest woodpecker in the world. The ivory-billed woodpecker has a total length of 48 to 53 cm (19 to 21 in), and based on scant information, weighs approximately 450 to 570 g (0.99 to 1.26 lb). Its wingspan is typically 76 cm (30 in). Standard measurements obtained include a wing chord length of 23.5–26.5 cm (9.3–10.4 in), a tail length of 14–17 cm (5.5–6.7 in), a bill length of 5.8–7.3 cm (2.3–2.9 in), and a tarsus length of 4–4.6 cm (1.6–1.8 in).[24]
The plumage of the ivory-billed woodpecker is predominated by a shiny black or purple tint. There are white lines extending from the cheeks down the neck, meeting on the back. The ends of the inner
These characteristics distinguish ivory-bills from the smaller and darker-billed pileated woodpecker. The pileated woodpecker normally is brownish-black, smoky, or slaty black in color. It also has a white neck stripe, but normally its back is black. Pileated woodpecker juveniles and adults have a red crest and a white chin. Pileated woodpeckers normally have no white on the trailing edges of their wings and when perched, normally show only a small patch of white on each side of the body, near the edge of the wing. However, aberrant individual pileated woodpeckers have been reported with white trailing edges on the wings, forming a white triangular patch on the lower back when perched.
The drum of the ivory-billed woodpecker is a single or double rap. Four fairly distinct calls are reported in the literature and two were recorded in the 1930s. The most common, a kent or hant, sounds like a toy trumpet often repeated in a series. When the bird is disturbed, the pitch of the kent note rises, it is repeated more frequently, and often doubled. A conversational call, also recorded, is given between individuals at the nest, and has been described as kent-kent-kent.
Habitat and diet
No attempts to comprehensively estimate the range of the ivory-billed woodpecker were made until after its range already had been severely reduced by deforestation and hunting. The first range map produced for the species was made by Edwin M. Hasbrouck in 1891.[27] The second range map produced was that made by James Tanner in 1942.[28] Both authors reconstructed the original range of the species from historical records they considered reliable, in many cases from specimens with clear records of where they were obtained. The two authors produced broadly similar range estimates, finding that before deforestation and hunting began to shrink its range, the ivory-billed woodpecker had ranged from eastern Texas to North Carolina, and from southern Illinois to Florida and Cuba,[29] typically from the coast inland to where the elevation is approximately 30 m (98 ft).[30]
A few significant differences in their reconstructions exist, however. Based on the reports of Wells Woodbridge Cooke from Kansas City and Fayette, Hasbrouck's range map extended up the
Tanner's range map is generally accepted as the original range of the bird,
Records exist of the ivory-billed woodpecker farther north along the Atlantic Coast;
Knowledge of the ecology and behavior of ivory-billed woodpeckers is largely derived from James Tanner's study of several birds in a tract of forest along the Tensas River in the late 1930s. The extent to which those data can be extrapolated to ivory-bills as a whole, remains an open question.[45] Ivory-billed woodpeckers have been found in habitat including dense swampland, comparatively open old-growth forest, and the upland pine forests of Cuba, but whether that is a complete list of suitable habitat is somewhat unclear.[46]
In the Tensas river region, Tanner estimate there was one pair of birds per 44 km2 (17 sq mi). From historical data he estimated there was one pair of birds per 25 km2 (10 sq mi) in the
The preferred food of the ivory-billed woodpecker is beetle larvae, with roughly half of recorded stomach contents composed of large beetle larvae, particularly of species from the family
Ivory-billed woodpeckers are diurnal birds, spending their nights in individual roost holes that often are reused. The birds typically leave their roost holes around dawn, feeding and engaging in other activities during the early morning. They are generally inactive during the mid-day and resume feeding activities in the late afternoon before returning to the roosts around dusk.[54]
Breeding biology and life cycle
The ivory-billed woodpecker is thought to mate for life. Pairs are known to travel together. These paired birds breed every year between January and May. Both parents work together to excavate a cavity in a tree approximately 15–70 feet (4.6–21.3 m)[55] from the ground for the nest in which their young will be raised. Limited data indicates a preference for living trees,[56] or partially dead trees, with rotten ones avoided.[55] Nest cavities are typically in or just below broken off stumps in living trees, where the wood is easier to excavate, and the overhanging stump can provide protection against rain and leave the opening in shadow, providing some protection against predators.[57] There are no clear records of nest cavities being reused, and ivory-bills, like most woodpeckers, likely excavate a new nest each year.[58] Nest openings are typically oval to rectangular in shape, and measure approximately 12–14 cm (4.7–5.5 in) tall by 10 cm (3.9 in) wide. The typical nest depth is roughly 50 cm (20 in), with nests as shallow as 36 cm (14 in) and as deep as 150 cm (59 in) reported.[59]
Typically, eggs are laid in April or May, with a few records of eggs laid as early as mid-February.[60] A second clutch has only been observed when the first one failed.[61] Up to three glossy, china-white eggs are laid, measuring on average 3.5 cm × 2.5 cm (1.38 in × 0.98 in),[50] although clutches of up to six eggs, and broods of up to four young, have been observed.[62] No nest has been observed for the length of incubation so it remains unknown,[63] although Tanner estimated it to be roughly 20 days.[64] Parents incubate the eggs cooperatively, with the male observed to incubate overnight, and the two birds typically exchanging places every two hours during the day, with one foraging and one incubating. Once the young hatch, both parents forage to bring food to them.[65] Young learn to fly about 7 to 8 weeks after hatching. The parents continue feeding them for another two months. The family eventually splits up in late fall or early winter.
Ivory-billed woodpeckers are not migratory, historically pairs were frequently observed to nest within a few hundred meters of previous nests, year after year.[61] Although ivory-billed woodpeckers thus feed within a semiregular territory within a few kilometers of their nest or roost, they are not territorial; no records are known of ivory-bills protecting their territories from other ivory-bills when encountering one another.[66] Indeed, in many instances the ivory-billed woodpecker has been observed acting as a social bird, with groups of four or five feeding together on a single tree, and as many as 11 observed feeding in the same location.[67] Similarly, ivory-billed woodpeckers have been observed feeding on the same tree as the pileated woodpecker, the only other large woodpecker with which they share a range, without any hostile interactions.[68] Although not migratory, sometimes the ivory-billed woodpecker is described as nomadic;[69] birds relocate from time to time to areas where disasters such as fires or floods have created large amounts of dead wood, and subsequently large numbers of beetle larva upon which they prefer to feed.[28]
The maximum lifespan of an Ivory-billed woodpecker is not known, but other Campephilus woodpeckers are not known to live longer than 15 years, so this value is sometimes used as an estimate.[70] No species (other than humans) are known to be predators of ivory-billed woodpeckers. However, they have been observed to exhibit predator response behaviors toward Cooper's hawks and red-shouldered hawks.[53]
Status
Heavy logging activity exacerbated by
The ivory-billed woodpecker was listed as an endangered species on March 11, 1967, by the
Evidence of persistence in the United States since 1944
Since 1944, regular reports have been made of ivory-billed woodpeckers being seen or heard across the southeastern United States, particularly in Louisiana, Florida, Texas, and South Carolina.
In 1950, the Audubon Society established a wildlife sanctuary along the Chipola River after a group led by University of Florida graduate student Whitney Eastman reported a pair of ivory-billed woodpeckers with a roost hole.[81][82] The sanctuary was terminated in 1952 when the woodpeckers could no longer be located.[83]
In 1967, ornithologist
H. N. Agey and G. M. Heinzmann reported observing one or two ivory-billed woodpeckers in
Louisiana State University museum director George Lowery presented two photographs at the 1971 annual meeting of the American Ornithologists' Union that show what appeared to be a male ivory-billed woodpecker. The photographs were taken by outdoorsman Fielding Lewis in the Atchafalaya Basin of Louisiana, with an Instamatic camera.[92] Although the photographs had the correct field markings for an ivory-billed woodpecker, their quality was not sufficient for other ornithologists to be confident that they did not depict a mounted specimen, and they were greeted with general skepticism.[93]
In 1999, a Louisiana State University forestry student reported an extended viewing of a pair of birds at close range in the Pearl River region of southeast Louisiana, which some experts found very compelling.[94] In 2002, an expedition, composed of researchers from Louisiana State University and Cornell University, was sent into the area.[95] Six researchers spent 30 days searching the area, finding indications of large woodpeckers, but none that could be clearly ascribed to ivory-billed woodpeckers rather than pileated woodpeckers.[96]
Gene Sparling reported seeing an ivory-billed woodpecker in the Cache River National Wildlife Refuge in 2004, prompting Tim Gallagher and Bobby Harrison to investigate. They also observed a bird they identified as an ivory-billed woodpecker. An expedition led by John W. Fitzpatrick of the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology followed and reported seven convincing sightings of an ivory-billed woodpecker. The team also heard and recorded possible double-knock and kent calls, and they produced a video with four seconds of footage of a large woodpecker that they identified as an ivory-billed woodpecker due to its size, field marks, and flight pattern.[97] The sighting was accepted by the Bird
Records Committee of the Arkansas Audubon Society.
Scientists from Auburn University and the University of Windsor published a paper describing a search for ivory-billed woodpeckers along the Choctawhatchee River from 2005 to 2006, during which they recorded 14 sightings of ivory-billed woodpeckers, 41 occasions on which double-knocks or kent calls were heard, and 244 occasions on which double-knocks or kent calls were recorded. They analysed those recordings and conducted examinations of tree cavities and bark stripping by woodpeckers seen during the search and determined them to be consistent with the behavior of ivory-billed woodpeckers, but inconsistent with the behavior of pileated woodpeckers.[103] In 2008, the sightings and sound detections largely dried up and the team ended their search in 2009.[104] The scientists' sightings were not accepted by the Florida Ornithological Society Records Committee.[105]
Mike Collins reported ten sightings of ivory-billed woodpeckers between 2006 and 2008. He obtained video evidence at the Pearl River in Louisiana in 2006 and 2008 and at the Choctawhatchee River in Florida in 2007. His analyses of these sightings and videos were published in peer-reviewed journal articles.[106][107][108][109][110] The USFWS 2019 five-year species review concluded that "...the blurred images are inconclusive as to whether they are IBWOs or not." Collins argues that the lack of clear photographs after 1944 is a function of species behavior and habitat, and that the expected time interval between clear photographs will be several orders of magnitude greater than it would be for a more typical species of comparable rarity.[107][110]
During the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service comment period, Bobby Harrison presented an October 2020 video of a bird in flight that he had identified in the field as an ivory-billed woodpecker.
Project Principalis, a team of "researchers, community scientists, and nature enthusiasts" led by founder Mark Michaels and Dr. Steven Latta of the National Aviary, surveyed in Louisiana from 2012 to 2022. In May 2023, they presented their findings in the peer-reviewed scientific journal Ecology and Evolution. Their evidence includes drone videos, trail camera images, audio recordings and team member encounters. The authors state that "Our findings, and the inferences drawn from them, suggest that all is not lost for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker and that it is clearly premature for the species to be declared extinct."[111][112]
Relationship with humans
The body parts of ivory-billed woodpeckers, particularly their bills, were used for trade, ceremonies, and decoration by
The presence of remains in
The ivory-billed woodpecker has been a particular focus among
The rare and elusive status of the species has inspired rewards for information that would allow the location of live birds. During their searches for proof of continued existence of the species, Cornell University offered a reward of $50,000.[125] The Louisiana Wilds project offered $12,000 for the location of an active roost or nest in 2020.[126]
The ivory-billed woodpecker has been the subject of artistic works.
Arkansas has issued license plates featuring a graphic of an ivory-billed woodpecker.[130]
Notes
- ^ Known in Cuban Spanish as the picamaderos picomarfil ("ivory bill woodpecker") or carpintero real ("royal carpenter/woodpecker").
- ^ The universally accepted starting point of modern taxonomy for animals is set at 1758, with the publication of Linnaeus's 10th edition of Systema Naturae, although scientists had been coining names in the previous century.[10]
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- ^ Smith, Chuck (27 February 2020). "$12K Reward Offered For Finding Rare Woodpecker". Red River Radio. Archived from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2020.
- ^ Caldwell, John; Rodriguez Roque, Oswaldo; Johnson, Dale T. (1 March 1994). American Paintings in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1: A Catalogue of Works by Artists Born by 1815. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 602–603.
- ^ "Brinkley, Ark., Embraces 'The Lord God Bird'". All Things Considered. National Public Radio. 6 July 2005. Archived from the original on 11 July 2006. Retrieved 9 July 2006.
- ^ "Sufjan Stevens – "The Lord God Bird" (MP3)". Npr.org. 27 April 2005. Archived from the original on 1 October 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
- ^ "Game & Fish Ivory Billed Woodpecker Plate". Arkansas Department of Finance and Administration. Archived from the original on 2 September 2018. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
Further reading
- Farrand, John Jr. and Bull, John, The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds: Eastern Region, National Audubon Society (1977)