Khosrow II
Khosrow II 𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩 | |
---|---|
Shahanshah of the Sasanian Empire | |
1st reign | 590 |
Predecessor | Hormizd IV |
Successor | Bahram Chobin |
2nd reign | 591 – 25 February 628 |
Predecessor | Bahram Chobin |
Successor | Kavad II |
Born | c. 570 |
Died | Ctesiphon | 28 February 628 (aged around 57–58)
Consort | |
House of Sasan | |
Father | Hormizd IV |
Mother | Unnamed Ispahbudhan noblewoman |
Religion | Zoroastrianism |
Khosrow II (spelled Chosroes II in classical sources;
Khosrow II was the son of
Khosrow II began
In works of Persian literature such as the Ferdowsi's Shahnameh and Nizami Ganjavi's (1141–1209) Khosrow and Shirin, a famous tragic romance and a highly elaborated fictional version of Khosrow's life made him one of the greatest heroes of the culture, as much a lover as a king. Khosrow and Shirin tells the story of his love for the Armenian/Roman (originally Aramean) princess Shirin, who becomes his queen after a lengthy courtship strewn with mishaps and difficulties.
Name
"Khosrow" is the
Background
Khosrow II was born in c. 570; he was the son of
Rebellion of Bahram Chobin
Overthrow of Hormizd IV and accession
In 590, Hormizd IV had his prominent general
Meanwhile, Hormizd tried to come to terms with his brothers-in-law Vistahm and Vinduyih, who according to the Syriac writer Joshua the Stylite, both "equally hated Hormizd".[1][11] The two brothers overthrew Hormizd in a seemingly bloodless palace revolution.[1][11] They had Hormizd blinded with a red-hot needle, and put Khosrow II on the throne.[1][12] Sometime in the summer of 590, the two brothers then had Hormizd killed, with at least the implicit approval of Khosrow II.[1] Nevertheless, Bahram Chobin continued his march to Ctesiphon, now with the pretext of claiming to avenge Hormizd.[13]
Khosrow then took a carrot and stick attitude, and wrote a message to Bahram Chobin, stressing his rightful claim to the Sasanian kingship: "Khosrow, kings of kings, ruler over the ruling, lord of the peoples, prince of peace, salvation of men, among gods the good and eternally living man, among men the most esteemed god, the highly illustrious, the victor, the one who rises with the sun and who lends the night his eyesight, the one famed through his ancestors, the king who hates, the benefactor who engaged the Sasanians and saved the Iranians their kingship—to Bahram, the general of the Iranians, our friend.... We have also taken over the royal throne in a lawful manner and have upset no Iranian customs.... We have so firmly decided not to take off the diadem that we even expected to rule over other worlds, if this were possible.... If you wish your welfare, think about what is to be done."[14]
Fight
Bahram Chobin, however, ignored his warning—a few days later, he reached the Nahrawan Canal near Ctesiphon, where he fought Khosrow's men, who were heavily outnumbered, but managed to hold Bahram Chobin's men back in several clashes. However, Khosrow's men eventually began losing their morale, and were in the end defeated by Bahram Chobin's forces. Khosrow, together with his two uncles, his wives, and a retinue of 30 nobles, thereafter fled to Byzantine territory, while Ctesiphon fell to Bahram Chobin.[1] Bahram Chobin declared himself king of kings in the summer of 590, asserting that the first Sasanian king Ardashir I (r. 224–242) had usurped the throne of the Arsacids, and that he now was restoring their rule.[8]
Bahram Chobin tried to support his cause with the
In order to get the attention of the Byzantine emperor
Return to Iran
In 591, Khosrow moved to
At the same time a force of 8,000 Iranians under Vistahm and Vinduyih and 12,000 Armenians under Mushegh II Mamikonian invaded Adurbadagan.[8] Bahram Chobin tried to disrupt the force by writing a letter to Mushegh II, the letter said: "As for you Armenians who demonstrate an unseasonable loyalty, did not the house of Sasan destroy your land and sovereignty? Why otherwise did your fathers rebel and extricate themselves from their service, fighting up until today for your country?"[20] Bahram Chobin in his letter promised that the Armenians would become partners of the new Iranian empire ruled by a Parthian dynastic family if he accepted his proposal to betray Khosrow II.[21] Mushegh, however, rejected the offer.[21]
Bahram Chobin was then defeated at the
Consolidation of the empire
Domestic affairs and relations with the Byzantines
With Khosrow's rule now restored, his aim was to now consolidate his grip over his realm, which included showing tolerance and support to his Christian subjects.
The Iranians and the Byzantines enjoyed good relations with each other for the first eleven years. This was apparent in their management of the issues that had risen in Armenia. In the 590s, many Armenian nobles and their supporters sought asylum in Iran to avoid being conscripted for Maurice's Balkan campaigns. The open borders between the two empires meant that nobles could freely immigrate to Iran and get promoted. However, when they showed signs of aspiring to fight the Byzantines, the Iranians worked together with the Byzantines to deal with the issue.[citation needed]
Revolt of Vistahm
After his victory, Khosrow rewarded his uncles with high positions: Vinduyih became treasurer and first minister and Vistahm received the post of spahbed of the East, encompassing Tabaristan and Khorasan, which was the traditional homeland of the Ispahbudhan.[11][25] Soon, however, Khosrow changed his intentions: trying to disassociate himself from his father's murder, he decided to execute his uncles. The Sasanian monarchs' traditional mistrust of over-powerful magnates and Khosrow's personal resentment of Vinduyih's patronising manner certainly contributed to this decision. Vinduyih was soon put to death, according to a Syriac source captured while trying to flee to his brother in the East.[11][26]
At the news of his brother's murder, Vistahm rose in open revolt. According to
As Vistahm began to threaten
Abolition of the Lakhmid dynasty
In 600, Khosrow II executed
Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628
Initial Iranian invasion and dominance
Toward the beginning of his reign, Khosrow II had good relations with the
In 610, Heraclius revolted against Phocas and killed him, crowning himself as Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. He then tried to negotiate peace with Khosrow II by sending diplomats to his court. Khosrow, however, rejected their offer and said: "That kingdom belongs to me, and I shall enthrone Maurice's son, Theodosius, as emperor. [As for Heraclius], he went and took the rule without our order and now offers us our own treasure as gifts. But I shall not stop until I have him in my hands." Khosrow then had the diplomats executed.[31]
In 613 and 614, General Shahrbaraz besieged and captured
Turko-Hephthalite invasion
In ca. 606/607, Khosrow recalled
Sebeos describes the event as:
He [Khosrow] ordered that a huge elephant be adorned and brought to the chamber. He commanded that [Smbat's son] Varaztirots' (who was called Javitean Khosrow by the king), be seated atop [the elephant]. And he ordered treasures scattered on the crowd. He wrote [to Smbat] a hrovartak [expressing] great satisfaction and summoned him to court with great honor and pomp. [Smbat] died in the 28th year of [Khosrow's] reign [618–19].[40]
Byzantine counter-offensive and resurgence
In 622, despite the major progress the Sasanians were making in the area of the Aegean Sea, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius was able to take the field with a powerful force. In 624, he advanced into northern Adurbadagan, where he was welcomed by Farrukh Hormizd and his son Rostam Farrokhzad who had rebelled against Khosrow.[41] Heraclius then began sacking several cities and temples, including the Adur Gushnasp temple.[32]
In 626 Heraclius captured
Following the
Overthrow and death
After the capture of Dastagird, the son of Khosrow, Sheroe, was released by the feudal families of the
Kavad shortly proceeded to have all his brothers and half-brothers executed, including the heir Mardanshah, who was Khosrow's favourite son. The murder of all his brothers, "all well-educated, valiant, and chivalrous men",
Due to Kavad's actions, his reign is seen as a turning point in Sasanian history, and has been argued by some scholars as playing a key role in the fall of the Sasanian Empire.[46] The overthrow and death of Khosrow culminated in a chaotic civil war, with the most powerful members of the nobility gaining full autonomy and starting to create their own government. The hostilities between the Persian (Parsig) and Parthian (Pahlav) noble-families were also resumed, which split up the wealth of the nation.[6] The civil war finally ended when Khosrow's eight year old grandson, Yazdegerd III, ascended the throne.[51] The young king, however, inherited a disintegrating empire, which was dealt its last blow in 651 during the Arab conquest of Iran.[52]
Religious policy and beliefs
Khosrow II, like all other Sasanian rulers, was an adherent of Zoroastrianism.[53] Since the 5th-century, the Sasanian monarchs had been made aware of the significance of the religious minorities in the realm, and as a result tried to homogenize them into a structure of administration where according to legal principles, all would be treated straightforwardly as mard / zan ī šahr, i.e. "man/woman [citizen] of the country".[54] Jews and (notably) Christians had accepted the concept of Iran and considered themselves part of the nation.[54]
During his reign there was constant conflict between Monophysite and Nestorian Christians. Khosrow favored the Monophysites, and ordered all his subjects to adhere to Monophysitism, perhaps under the influence of Shirin and the royal physician Gabriel of Sinjar, who both supported this faith. Khosrow also dispensed money or gifts to Christian shrines.[55] Khosrow's great tolerance to Christianity and friendship with the Christian Byzantines even made some Armenian writers think that Khosrow was a Christian.[55] His positive policy toward Christians (which, however, was probably politically motivated) made him unpopular with the Zoroastrian priests, and also made Christianity greatly spread around the Sasanian Empire.[56] During Khosrow's war with the Byzantines, Christian elites and organizations were incorporated into the Sasanian system, as part of his attempt to absorb the Byzantine realm into his expanded empire.[57] The condition of the Christian nobility reached its pinnacle under Khosrow.[58] Mushegh II Mamikonian, a prominent Armenian nakharar, is the first and only Christian nobleman that is praised by courtly historiographers, due to his rejection of the enticements of Bahram Chobin. His decision to choose Khosrow over his native Armenia, gained him a place in the Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran.[58] Smbat IV Bagratuni likewise led an illustrious career under Khosrow, rising to the office of frontier commander of Gorgan, possibly the most vital and contested area of the Sasanian realm. As a reward for his accomplishments in the east, Smbat was appointed the leader of the military jurisdiction in the Caucasus. Furthermore, his aristocratic house–the Bagratunids–was made the pillar of Sasanian authority in the area.[58]
Khosrow also paid attention to the Zoroastrians, and had various
Music during the reign of Khosrow II
Khosrow II's reign was considered a
Rock reliefs
Khosrow restored the practice of erecting rock reliefs, after an absence of nearly three centuries, the last one being erected under
-
The relief stone of Khosrow II during the coronation
-
Equestrian statue of Khosrow II.
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Rock relief on the left side panel, depicting a boar hunt.
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Drawing of an unfinished rock relief on the right side panel, depicting a deer hunt.
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This folio from Walters manuscript W.659 depicts Mount Bistun and the carvings of Khusraw, Shirin, and Farhad.
Coinage
Khosrow, during his second reign, added the
Khosrow II in Islamic tradition
"In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Kisra, the great (leader/head) of the Persians. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in Allah and in His Prophet and testifies that there is no god but Allah and that He has no partner, and who believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of Allah, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe (in this life and the next). And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of the Magi."[64][65]
Islamic tradition further states that Khosrow II tore up Muhammad's letter
In art
The battles between Heraclius and Khosrow are depicted in a famous early Renaissance fresco by
Family
Khosrow was the son of
Khosrow married three times: first to
Family tree
Khosrow I (531–579) | Shapur († 580s) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hormizd IV (579–590) | Unknown | Vistahm (590/1–596 or 594/5–600) | Vinduyih | Unnamed noblewoman | Jushnas | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Khosrow II (590–628) | Kavad | Mirhran | Mah-Adhur Gushnasp | Narsi | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Javanshir | Khosrow III (630) | Shapur-i Shahrvaraz (630) | Anoshagan | Bistam | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Farrukhzad Khosrow V (631) | Shahriyar († 628) | Unknown | Kavad Gushnasp | Tamahij | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
See also
- Babai the Great
- Behistun Inscription
- Behistun Palace
- Kisra legend, an African migration myth that historian Leo Frobenius argued was based on Khosrow II
- Muqawqis, Ruler of Alexandria
- Non-Muslim interactants with Muslims during Muhammad's era
- Shabdiz Khosrow's highly admired horse
- Ganj-e Badavard
Notes
- ^ Also spelled "King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians".
References
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- ^ Skjærvø 2000.
- ^ a b Nicholson, Canepa & Daryaee 2018.
- ^ Rapp 2014, p. 341.
- ^ Schmitt & Bailey 1986.
- ^ a b c Shahbazi 2004, pp. 466–467.
- ^ Hansman 1986, pp. 277–278.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Shahbazi 1988, pp. 514–522.
- ^ a b Shayegan 2013, p. 810.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 96.
- ^ a b c d e f Shahbazi 1989, pp. 180–182.
- ^ Al-Tabari 1985–2007, v. 5: p. 49.
- ^ a b c Rezakhani 2017, p. 178.
- ^ Kia 2016, p. 241.
- ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 172.
- ^ a b Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 173.
- ^ Martindale, Jones & Morris 1992, p. 251.
- ^ Rawlinson 2004, p. 509.
- ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 174.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 128–129.
- ^ a b Pourshariati 2008, p. 129.
- ^ a b Kia 2016, p. 242.
- ^ a b Pourshariati 2008, pp. 133–134.
- ^ Daryaee & Rezakhani 2016, p. 43.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 131–132.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 132, 134.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 132–133, 135.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 136–137.
- ^ Landau-Tasseron 1996.
- ^ Frye 1984, p. 330.
- ^ Sebeos, chapter 24
- ^ a b c Meyer 1911.
- ^ Kia 2016, p. 223.
- ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2005, p. 197.
- ^ Foss 1975, p. 725.
- ^ Howard-Johnston 2006, p. 33.
- ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 88
- ^ a b c Martindale, Jones & Morris 1992, pp. 1363–1364.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 153–154.
- ^ Soudavar 2012.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 152–153.
- ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 140.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 173.
- ^ Morony 2005, p. 92.
- ^ Tafazzoli 1987, p. 743.
- ^ a b Kia 2016, pp. 255–256.
- ^ Al-Tabari 1985–2007, v. 5: p. 398.
- ^ Al-Tabari 1985–2007, v. 5: p. 399.
- ^ Oman 1893, p. 212
- ^ Kaegi 2003, pp. 178, 189–190
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 219.
- ^ Kia 2016, pp. 284–285.
- ^ Payne 2015, p. 2.
- ^ a b Daryaee 2014, p. 56.
- ^ a b Frye 1983, p. 166.
- ^ Frye 1983, p. 171.
- ^ Payne 2015, p. 200.
- ^ a b c Payne 2015, p. 168.
- ^ Frye 1983, p. 172.
- ^ a b c d Canepa 2018, p. 361.
- ^ a b c Schindel 2013, p. 837.
- ^ Shayegan 2013, pp. 806, 812–813.
- ^ al-Mubarakpuri 2002, p. 417.
- ^ a b Subhani, Ja'far. "Chapter 42: The Events of the Seventh Year of Migration". The Message. Retrieved 13 September 2023 – via Al-Islam.org.
- ^ Tabaqat-i Kubra, vol. I, p. 360; Tarikh-i Tabari, vol. II, pp. 295, 296; Tarikh-i Kamil, vol. II, p. 81; and Biharul Anwar, vol. XX, p. 389.
- ^ a b Morony 1980, p. 185.
- ^ Mubarakpuri 2009, p. [page needed].
- ^ Ibn Kathir, Ismail (1367). Al Bidaya Wal Nihaya.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 179.
- ^ Shahbazi 2004b.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 236.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 205.
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- Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2004). "Hormozd IV". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XII, Fasc. 5. pp. 466–467.
- Shahbazi, A. Shapur (15 December 2004b). "HORMOZĀN". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
- Shahbazi, A. (2005). "Sasanian dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
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- Shayegan, M. Rahim (2013). "Sasanian political ideology". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190668662.
- Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2000). "Kayāniān vii. Kauui Haosrauuah, Kay Husrōy, Kay Ḵosrow". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
- Soudavar, Abolala (January 2012). "Looking through The Two Eyes of the Earth: A Reassessment of Sasanian Rock Reliefs" (PDF). Iranian Studies. 45 (1): 29–58. S2CID 154699256– via www.soudavar.com.
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Further reading
- Hämeen-Anttila, Jaakko (2022). "The Letters of Shahrbarāz and Middle Persian Historiography on the Last Great War of Late Antiquity" (PDF). Journal of Late Antique, Islamic and Byzantine Studies. 1 (1–2): 65–93. S2CID 263274105.
- Piras, Andrea (2022). "Apocalyptic Imagery and Royal Propaganda in Khosrow II's Letter to the Byzantine Emperor Maurice". Journal of Persianate Studies. 14 (1–2): 178–195. S2CID 251787417.