Erbil
Erbil
ھەولێر Hewlêr | |
---|---|
City | |
Top-bottom, R-L: UTC+3 (AST) | |
Postal code | 44001 |
Area code | 066 |
Website | HawlerGov.org |
Erbil (
Human settlement at Erbil may be dated back to the 5th millennium BC.[8] At the heart of the city is the ancient Citadel of Erbil and Mudhafaria Minaret. The earliest historical reference to the region dates to the Third Dynasty of Ur of Sumer, when King Shulgi mentioned the city of Urbilum. The city was later conquered by the Assyrians.[9][10]
In the 3rd century BC, Erbil was an independent power in its area. It was conquered for a time by the
Following the Muslim conquest of Persia, the region no longer remained united, and during the Middle Ages, the city came to be ruled by the Seljuk and Ottoman empires.[12]
Erbil's archaeological museum houses a large collection of pre-Islamic artifacts, particularly the art of Mesopotamia, and is a centre for archaeological projects in the area.[13] The city was designated as the Arab Tourism Capital 2014 by the Arab Council of Tourism.[14][15] In July 2014, the Citadel of Erbil was inscribed as a World Heritage Site.[16]
Names
Erbil is the
History
Archaeology
In 2006 a small excavation was conducted by Karel Novacek of the University of West Bohemia.[23] Being so heavily occupied, the site has never been properly excavated. The Erbil Plain Archaeological Survey began in 2012. The survey combines satellite imagery and field work to determine the development and archaeology of the plain around Erbil. Besides Erbil the plain has a number of promising archaeological sites, most notably Tell Baqrta.[24][25] Tell Baqrta is a very large, 80 hectare, site which dates back to the Early Bronze Age.[26] In 2013 a team from the Sapienza University of Rome conducted some ground penetrating radar work on the center of the citadel. Starting in 2014 an Iraqi-led excavation began on a citadel location where the collapse of a modern building provided an opportunity for excavation. Historical aerial photographs and ground survey have also begun on the lower city.[27]
Ancient history
The region in which Erbil lies was largely under Sumerian domination from c. 3000 BC, until the rise of the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) which united all of the Akkadian Semites and Sumerians of Mesopotamia under one rule.[29]
The first mention of Erbil in literary sources comes from the archives of the kingdom of
In the centuries after the fall of the Ur III empire Erbil became a power in its area.It was conquered by Shamsi-Adad I during his short lived Upper Mesopotamian Kingdom, becoming independent after its fall. By the time of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BC) Erbil was within the Assyrian zone of control which largely extended into the Neo-Assyrian Empire (935–605 BC). The city then changed hands a number of times including the Persian, Greek, Parthian, Roman and Sassanid rule.
Under the
The
Erbil became part of the region disputed between Rome and Persia under the
Its populace then gradually converted from the ancient Mesopotamian religion between the first and fourth centuries to Christianity, with Pkidha traditionally becoming its first bishop around 104 AD. The ancient Mesopotamian religion did not die out entirely in the region until the tenth century AD.[34][35] The Adiabene (East Syriac ecclesiastical province) in Arbela (Syriac: ܐܪܒܝܠ Arbel) became a centre of eastern Syriac Christianity until late in the Middle Ages.[36]
Medieval history
As many of the Assyrians who had converted to Christianity adopted Biblical (including Jewish) names, most of the early bishops had Eastern Aramaic or Jewish/Biblical names, which does not suggest that many of the early Christians in this city were converts from Judaism.[37] It served as the seat of a Metropolitan of the Assyrian Church of the East. From the city's Christian period come many church fathers and well-known authors in Aramaic.
Following the
The most notable Kurdish tribe in the region was the Hadhabani, of which several individuals also acted as governors for the city from the late tenth century until the 12th century when it was conquered by the Zengids and its governorship given to the Turkic Begtegenids, of whom the most notable was Gökböri, who retained the city during the Ayyubid era.[39][40] Yaqut al-Hamawi further describes Erbil as being mostly Kurdish-populated in the 13th century.[41]
When the Mongols
As time passed, sustained persecutions of Christians, Jews and Buddhists throughout the
During the reign of the Ilkhan
However, the city's Assyrian population remained numerically significant until the destruction of the city by the forces of Timur in 1397.[48]
In the
The Medes
Erbil went on to be the seat of rule of the Adiabene Kingdom in the first century AD, largely located to the northwest in the region of modern-day Diyarbakir in Turkey. It is remembered in Jewish traditions for the notable conversion of its Queen, Helena of Adiabene, to Judaism before she moved on to Jerusalem. Early Christianity was also to flourish in Erbil with a bishop established in the town as early as AD 100 with a community of followers thought to be converts from Judaism.[36]
Modern history
Erbil lies on the plain beneath the mountains, but for the most part, the inhabitants of Iraqi Kurdistan dwell up above in the rugged and rocky terrain that is the traditional habitat of the Kurds since time immemorial.[49]
The modern town of Erbil stands on a tell topped by an Ottoman fort. During the Middle Ages, Erbil became a major trading centre on the route between Baghdad and Mosul, a role which it still plays today with important road links to the outside world.
Erbil is also home to a large population of refugees due to ongoing conflicts in Syria. In 2020, it was estimated that 450,000 refugees had settled in the Erbil metropolitan area since 2003, with many of them expected to remain.[50]
The parliament of the
The Kurdish Parliament in Erbil reconvened after a peace agreement was signed between the Kurdish parties in 1997, but had no real power. The Kurdish government in Erbil had control only in the western and northern parts of the autonomous region. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, a United States special forces task force was headquartered just outside Erbil. The city was the scene of celebrations on 10 April 2003 after the fall of the Ba'ath regime.
During the
The Erbil International Airport opened in the city in 2005.[53]
In September 2013, a quintuple car bombing killed six people.
In 2015, the Assyrian Church of the East moved its seat from Chicago to Erbil.
In February 2021, a
Transportation
Erbil International Airport is one of Iraq's busiest airports. Services include direct flights to many domestic destinations such as Baghdad international airport. There are international flights from Erbil to many countries; such as the Netherlands, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Austria, Turkey, Jordan and elsewhere around the world. There are occasionally seasonal flights from Erbil international airport. Erbil International Airport was briefly closed to international commercial flights in September 2017 by the Iraqi government in retaliation for the Kurdish independence vote but reopened in March 2018.[54][55]
Another important form of transportation between Erbil and the surrounding areas is by bus. Among others, bus services offer connections to Turkey and Iran. A new bus terminal was opened in 2014.[56] Erbil has a system of six ring roads encircling the city.[57]
Climate
Erbil has a
A downpour on 17 December 2021 caused flash floods in the area, killing 14 people.[59]
Climate data for Erbil | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 20 (68) |
27 (81) |
30 (86) |
34 (93) |
42 (108) |
44 (111) |
48 (118) |
49 (120) |
45 (113) |
39 (102) |
31 (88) |
24 (75) |
49 (120) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 12.4 (54.3) |
14.2 (57.6) |
18.1 (64.6) |
24.0 (75.2) |
31.5 (88.7) |
38.1 (100.6) |
42.0 (107.6) |
41.9 (107.4) |
37.9 (100.2) |
30.7 (87.3) |
21.2 (70.2) |
14.4 (57.9) |
27.2 (81.0) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 7.4 (45.3) |
8.9 (48.0) |
12.4 (54.3) |
17.5 (63.5) |
24.1 (75.4) |
29.7 (85.5) |
33.4 (92.1) |
33.1 (91.6) |
29.0 (84.2) |
22.6 (72.7) |
15.0 (59.0) |
9.1 (48.4) |
20.2 (68.3) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.4 (36.3) |
3.6 (38.5) |
6.7 (44.1) |
11.1 (52.0) |
16.7 (62.1) |
21.4 (70.5) |
24.9 (76.8) |
24.4 (75.9) |
20.1 (68.2) |
14.5 (58.1) |
8.9 (48.0) |
3.9 (39.0) |
13.2 (55.8) |
Record low °C (°F) | −4 (25) |
−6 (21) |
−1 (30) |
3 (37) |
6 (43) |
10 (50) |
13 (55) |
17 (63) |
11 (52) |
4 (39) |
−2 (28) |
−2 (28) |
−6 (21) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 111 (4.4) |
97 (3.8) |
89 (3.5) |
69 (2.7) |
26 (1.0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
12 (0.5) |
56 (2.2) |
80 (3.1) |
540 (21.2) |
Average rainy days | 9 | 9 | 10 | 9 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 10 | 62 |
Average snowy days | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
74.5 | 70 | 65 | 58.5 | 41.5 | 28.5 | 25 | 27.5 | 30.5 | 43.5 | 60.5 | 75.5 | 50.0 |
Source 1: Climate-Data.org,[58] My Forecast for records, humidity, snow and precipitation days[60] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: What's the Weather Like.org,[61] Erbilia[62] |
Culture
Demographics
The city is predominantly Kurdish and has minorities of local Turkmen and Assyrians, as well as Arabs.[63][64][65]
Turkmens
The Turkmen population in Erbil is estimated to be around 300,000. They mainly reside in the neighbourhoods of Taci, Mareke and Three Tak in Erbil's city centre, around the citadel. Until 2006, they were living in the Tophane, Tekke and Saray neighborhoods of the Citadel, which contained almost 700 houses. In 2006, the citadel was emptied, and the Turkmen in the citadel were relocated to other neighbourhoods. Turkmens participate in the political institutions of the KRG, including the Parliament.[66]
Iraq's first two Turkmen schools were opened on 17 November 1993, one in Erbil and the other in Kifri.[67]
Erbil's citadel also contains the Turkmen Culture House.
Assyrians
Erbil's Ankawa district is mainly populated by Christian Assyrians. The district houses approximately 40 churches.[68][69]
Citadel of Erbil
The Citadel of Erbil is a tell or occupied mound in the historical heart of Erbil, rising between 25 and 32 metres (82 and 105 ft) from the surrounding plain. The buildings on top of the tell stretch over a roughly oval area of 430 by 340 metres (1,410 ft × 1,120 ft) occupying 102,000 square metres (1,100,000 sq ft). It has been claimed that the site is the oldest continuously inhabited town in the world.[70] The earliest evidence for occupation of the citadel mound dates to the fifth millennium BC and possibly earlier. It appears for the first time in historical sources during the Ur III period and gained particular importance during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (tenth to seventh centuries BC) period. West of the citadel at Ary Kon quarter, a chamber tomb dating to the Neo-Assyrian Empire period has been excavated.[13] During the Sassanian period and the Abbasid Caliphate, Erbil was an important centre for Syriac Christianity and the Assyrians in general. After the Mongols captured the citadel in 1258, Erbil's importance began to decline. The main gate is guarded by an immense statue of a Kurd reading: "the house of the citadel behind him are built into stony ground of the mound and look down on the streets and tarmacked roads that circle them".
During the 20th century, the urban structure was significantly modified, as a result of which a number of houses and public buildings were destroyed. In 2007, the High Commission for Erbil Citadel Revitalization (HCECR) was established to oversee the
The only religious structure that currently survives in the citadel is the Mulla Effendi mosque. When it was fully occupied, the citadel was divided in three districts or mahallas: from east to west the Serai, the Takya and the Topkhana. The Serai was occupied by notable families; the Takya district was named after the homes of dervishes, which are called takyas; and the Topkhana district housed craftsmen and farmers. Other sights to visit in the citadel include the bathing rooms (hammam) built in 1775 located near the mosque and the Textile Museum.[71] Erbil citadel has been inscribed on the World Heritage List on 21 June 2014.
Other sights
- The 36-metre-high (118-foot) Mudhafaria Minaret, situated in Minaret Park several blocks from the citadel, dates back to the late 12th century AD and the Governor of Erbil, in the reign of Saladin, Muzaffar Al-Din Abu Sa’eed Al-Kawkaboori (Gökböri), who had entered in the obedience of Saladin without war and married his sister. It has an octagonal base decorated with two tiers of niches, which is separated from the main shaft by a small balcony, also decorated. Another historical minaret with turquoise glazed tiles is nearby.
- Sami Abdul Rahman Park
- The Mound of Qalich Agha lies within the grounds of the Museum of Civilization, 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from the citadel. An excavation in 1996 found tools from the Halaf, Ubaid and Uruk periods.[13]
- Classical School of the Medes
Sports
The local major football team is Erbil Soccer Club which plays its football matches at Franso Hariri Stadium (named after the assassinated Assyrian politician, former governor of Erbil city Franso Hariri) which is based in the south part of central Erbil. They won 3 Iraqi nation league titles and reached the AFC Final twice, but lost both times.
Sister cities
See also
- List of largest cities in Iraq
- Kurdistan
- Nanakaly Hospital for Hematology & Oncology (Azady)
- Ankawa – a suburb
- List of cities of the ancient Near East
- Erbil International Airport – capital's airport in Kurdistan
- The archaeological hills in Erbil
- English Village, a luxury compound in Erbil.
References
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- ^ "Search Entry". assyrianlanguages.org. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
- ISBN 978-90-04-30504-5.
There are a number of variant forms of the name Arbel. The form Arbel, which is used throughout this book, is the Neo-Aramaic form of the name. The Arabic-speaking Jews of the town refer to it as Arbīl or Arwīl. In Classical Arabic sources it is known as Irbīl. The Kurds call it Hawler, which appears to have developed from the form Arbel by a series of metatheses of consonants. The name appears to be of non-Semitic origin. It is first found in cuneiform texts dating to the third millennium B.C., where it usually has the form Urbilum.
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Of the four residences of the Achaemenids named by Herodotus—Ecbatana, Pasargadae or Persepolis, Susa and Babylon—the last [situated in Iraq] was maintained as their most important capital, the fixed winter quarters, the central office of bureaucracy, exchanged only in the heat of summer for some cool spot in the highlands. Under the Seleucids and the Parthians the site of the Mesopotamian capital moved slightly to the north on the Tigris—to Seleucia and Ctesiphon. It is indeed symbolic that these new foundations were built from the bricks of ancient Babylon, just as later Baghdad, a little further upstream, was built out of the ruins of the Sassanian double city of Seleucia-Ctesiphon
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- ^ Woods 1977, pp. 49–50
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- ^ J. von Hammer-Purgstall. 1842. Geschichte der Ilchane, das ist der Mongolen in Persien, Volume 1. P. 159-161.
- ^ Grousset, p. 379
- ^ Sourdel 2010
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- ^ "Erbil climate info". What's the Weather Like.org. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
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Sources
- Sourdel, D. (2010), "Irbil", in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; OCLC 624382576
- Grousset, René, The Empire of the Steppes, (Translated from the French by Naomi Walford), New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press (1970)
- Villard, Pierre (2001), "Arbèles", in Joannès, Francis (ed.), Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne, Bouquins (in French), Paris: Robert Laffont, pp. 68–69, ISBN 978-2-221-09207-1
- Woods, John E. (1977), "A note on the Mongol capture of Isfahān", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 36 (1): 49–51, S2CID 161867404
External links
- Hawler Governorate
- Erbil Archived 28 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine – Portal for international visitors
- Livius.org: Arbela Archived 2 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- Erbil Information Guide
- Hawler/Erbil visitor's guide
- Erbil seen through camera lens