Lothal
Indus Valley Civilization | |
Events | not known |
---|---|
Site notes | |
Excavation dates | 1955–1960 |
Condition | Ruined |
Ownership | Public |
Management | Archaeological Survey of India |
Public access | Yes |
Lothal (IPA:
The
The National Institute of Oceanography in Goa discovered foraminifera (marine microfossils) and salt, gypsum crystals in the rectangular structure clearly indicating that sea water once filled the structure and it was definitely a dockyard.[7]
Lothal was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa. The techniques and tools they pioneered for bead-making and in metallurgy have stood the test of time for over 4000 years.[8]
Lothal is situated near the village of
The Lothal site was nominated, in April 2014, as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and its application is pending on the tentative list of UNESCO.[9][1]
Archaeology
When
The meaning of Lothal (a combination of Loth and (s) thal) in Gujarati is "the mound of the dead". This is not unusual, as the name of the city of Mohenjo-daro in Sindhi translates to the same. People in villages neighbouring to Lothal had known of the presence of an ancient town and human remains. As recently as 1850, boats could sail up to the mound. In 1942, timber was shipped from Broach to Saragwala via the mound. A silted creek connecting modern Bholad with Lothal and Saragwala represents the ancient flow channel of a river or creek.[11]
Speculation suggests that owing to the comparatively small dimensions of the main city (7 hectares (17 acres)),
After the core of the
Town planning
A flood destroyed village foundations and settlements (c. 2350 BCE). Harappans based around Lothal and from Sindh took this opportunity to expand their settlement and create a planned township on the lines of greater cities in the Indus valley.[15] Lothal planners engaged themselves to protect the area from consistent floods. The town was divided into blocks of 1- 2m high (3–6 ft) platforms of sun-dried bricks, each serving 20–30 houses of thick mud and brick walls. The city was divided into a citadel, or acropolis and a lower town. The rulers of the town lived in the acropolis, which featured houses with paved bathing platforms, underground and surface drains (built of kiln-fired bricks) and potable water well. The acropolis also housed the towns warehouse, with a ramp down to the basin, on the towns eastern flank. The lower town was subdivided into two sectors. A north–south arterial street was the main commercial area. It was flanked by shops of rich and ordinary merchants and craftsmen. The residential area was located to either side of the marketplace. The lower town was also periodically enlarged during Lothal's years of prosperity.[citation needed]
All the construction were made of fire dried bricks, lime and sand mortar and not by sun-dried bricks as bricks are still intact after 4000 years and still bonded together with each other with the mortar bond.[16]
Economy and urban culture
The uniform organization of the town and its institutions make it evident that the Harappans were very disciplined people.[17] Commerce and administrative duties were performed according to standards laid out. Municipal administration was strict – the width of most streets remained the same over a long time, and no encroached structures were built. Householders possessed a sump, or collection chamber to deposit solid waste in order to prevent the clogging of city drains. Drains, manholes, and cesspools deposited the waste in the river which was washed out during high tide maintaining the cleanliness of the city. A new provincial style of Harappan art and painting was pioneered. The new approaches included realistic portrayals of animals in their natural surroundings. Metalware, gold and jewellery and tastefully decorated ornaments attest to the culture and prosperity of the people of Lothal.
Most of their equipment: metal tools, weights, measures, seals, earthenware and ornaments were of the uniform standard and quality found across the Indus civilization. Lothal was a major trade centre, importing en masse[
Architectural development
While the wider debate over the end of
The declining prosperity of the town, paucity of resources and poor administration increased the woes of a people pressured by consistent floods and storms.[
Later Harappan culture
Archaeological evidence shows that the site continued to be inhabited, albeit by a much smaller population devoid of urban influences. The few people who returned to Lothal could not reconstruct and repair their city, but surprisingly continued to stay and preserved religious traditions,[citation needed] living in poorly built houses and reed huts. That they were the Harappan peoples is evidenced by the analyses of their remains in the cemetery. While the trade and resources of the city were almost entirely gone, the people retained several Harappan ways in writing,[citation needed] pottery, and utensils. About this time ASI archaeologists record a mass movement of refugees from Punjab and Sindh into Saurashtra and to the valley of Sarasvati (1900–1700 BCE).[23] Hundreds of ill-equipped settlements have been attributed to this people as Late Harappans a completely de-urbanised culture characterised by rising illiteracy,[citation needed] less complex economy, unsophisticated administration and poverty.[citation needed] Though Indus seals went out of use, the system of weights with an 8.573 gram (0.3024 oz avoirdupois
Civilization
The people of Lothal made significant and often unique contributions to human civilisation in the Indus era, in the fields of
Science and engineering
A thick ring-like shell object found with four slits each in two margins served as a compass to measure angles on plane surfaces such as housing alignments, roads or land surveys. S.R. Rao also suggested that it could have functioned as an instrument for measuring angles and perhaps the position of stars and thus for navigation like a sextant.[24] Lothal contributes one of three measurement scales that are integrated and linear (others found in Harappa and Mohenjodaro). An ivory scale from Lothal has the smallest-known decimal divisions in Indus civilisation. The scale is 6 millimetres (0.2 inches) thick, 15 mm (0.59 in) broad and the available length is 128 mm (5.0 in), but only 27 graduations are visible over 46 mm (1.8 in), the distance between graduation lines being 1.70 mm (0.067 in) (the small size indicates use for fine purposes). The sum total of ten graduations from Lothal is approximate to the angula in the Arthashastra.[25] The Lothal craftsmen took care to ensure durability and accuracy of stone weights by blunting edges before polishing.[26]
For their renowned draining system, Lothal engineers provided corbelled roofs, and an apron of kiln-fired bricks over the brick face of the platform where the sewerage entered the cesspool. Wooden screens inserted in grooves in the side drain walls held back solid waste. The well is built of radial bricks, 2.4 metres (7.9 feet) in diameter and 6.7 metres (22 feet) deep. It had an immaculate network of underground drains, silting chambers and cesspools, and inspection chambers for solid waste. The extent of drains provided archaeologists with many clues regarding the layout of streets, organisation of housing and baths. On average, the main sewer is 20–46 cm (7.9–18.1 in) in depth, with outer dimensions of 86 × 68 × 33 cm (34 × 27 × 13 in). Lothal brick-makers used a logical approach in manufacture of bricks, designed with care in regards to thickness of structures. They were used as headers and stretchers in same and alternate layers. Archaeologists estimate that in most cases, the bricks were in ratio 1:0.5:0.25 on three sides, in dimensions which were integral multiples of large graduations of Lothal scale of 25 mm (0.98 in).[27]
Religion and disposal of the dead
The people of Lothal worshipped a fire god who is speculated to be the horned deity depicted on seals. The presence of private and public fire-altars where religious ceremonies were hosted further testifies to their spiritual beliefs. Archaeologists have discovered gold pendants, charred ashes of terra-cotta cakes and pottery, bovine remains, beads and other signs that may indicate the practice of the Gavamayana sacrifice, associated with the ancient
Metallurgy and jewellery
Lothal copper is unusually pure, lacking the arsenic typically used by coppersmiths across the rest of the Indus valley. The city imported ingots from probable sources in the Arabian peninsula. Workers mixed tin with copper for the manufacture of celts, arrowheads, fishhooks, chisels, bangles, rings, drills, and spearheads, although weapon manufacturing was minor. They also employed advanced metallurgy in following the cire perdue technique of casting, and used more than one-piece moulds for casting birds and animals.[32] They also invented new tools such as curved saws and twisted drills unknown to other civilisations at the time.[33]
Lothal was one of the most important centres of production for shell-working, owing to the abundance of chank shell of high quality found in the
Art
The discovery of etched
Lothal offers two new types of pottery, a convex bowl with or without stud handle and a small jar with flaring rim, both of which were found in the micaceous Red Ware period and not in contemporary Indus cultures. Lothal artists introduced a new form of realistic painting.[38] Paintings depict animals in their natural surroundings. On one large vessel, the artist depicts birds with fish in their beaks, resting in a tree, while a fox-like animal stands below. This scene bears resemblance to the story of The Fox and the Crow in the Panchatantra.[39] Artistic imagination is also suggested via careful portrayals—for example, several birds with legs aloft in the sky suggest flight, while half-opened wings suggest imminent flight. On a miniature jar, the story of the thirsty crow and deer is depicted – of how the deer could not drink from the narrow-mouth of the jar, while the crow succeeded by dropping stones in the jar. The features of the animals are clear and graceful. Movements and emotions are suggested by the positioning of limbs and facial features—in a 15 cm × 5 cm (5.9 in × 2.0 in) jar without overcrowding.[39]
A complete set of terra-cotta gamesmen, has been found in Lothal—animal figures, pyramids with ivory handles and castle-like objects (similar to the chess set of Queen Hatshepsut in Egypt).[40] The realistic portrayal of human beings and animals suggests a careful study of anatomical and natural features. The bust of a male with slit eyes, sharp nose, and square-cut beard is reminiscent of Sumerian figures, especially stone sculptures from Mari. In images of men and women, muscular and physical features are sharp, prominently marked. Terra-cotta models also identify the differences between species of dogs and bulls, including those of horses.[41] Animal figures with wheels and a movable head may have been utilised as toys.
Cultivation and Diet
Rice was the major food crop but Ragi, jowar was also popular in lothal. Various types of lentils were also part of the diet. The bones of many animals including domesticated and wild give the indication of a wide food culture.[42]
Excavated Lothal
On plan, Lothal stands 285 metres (935 feet) north-to-south and 228 metres (748 feet) east-to-west. At the height of its habitation, it covered a wider area since remains have been found 300 metres (980 feet) south of the mound. Due to the fragile nature of unbaked bricks and frequent floods, the superstructures of all buildings have receded. However, the dwarfed walls, platforms, two wells, drains, and paved bathing platforms are visible.[18] The dock walls were also preserved beyond the great deluge (c.1900 BCE) due to the loam that was deposited by persistent floods. Erosion and brick robbery are responsible for the absence of high standing walls as well as the ancient nullah, inlet channel, and riverbed. The flood-damaged peripheral wall of mud-bricks is visible near the warehouse area. The remnants of the north–south sewer are burnt bricks in the cesspool. Cubical blocks of the warehouse on a high platform are also visible.[18]
The ASI has covered the peripheral walls, the wharf, and many houses of the early phase with earth to protect from natural phenomena, but the entire archaeological site is nevertheless facing grave concerns about necessary preservation.[43] Salinity ingress and prolonged exposure to the rain and sun are gradually eating away the remains of the site. Heavy rain in the region has damaged the remains of the sun-dried mud brick constructions. Stagnant rain water has lathered the brick and mud work with layers of moss. Due to siltation, the dockyard's draft has been reduced by 3–4 metres (9.8–13.1 ft) and saline deposits are decaying the bricks. Officials blame the salinity on capillary action and point out that cracks are emerging and foundations weakening even as restoration work slowly progresses.[44]
Dockyard
The trapezoidal, burn brick, structure is located on the east of the town and away from the main river channel, to possibly avoid deposition of silt. The north–south length averages 215 metres (705 feet), and east–west width of 35 metres (115 feet).[45] An inlet approximately 7 metres (23 ft) wide and 0.9 metres (3.0 ft) in depth survives in the north of the structure, and a 1 metre (3.3 ft) square sluice gate or spillway, that appears could have been dammed by a wooden gate, exists in the south face of the structure.[5] When the river changed its course in 2000 BCE, a canal approximately 7 metres (23 feet) wide and 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) long, was dug to the new river course.[45]
Facilitating the movement of cargo was a mudbrick wharf, 220 metres (720 feet) long, built on the western arm of the dock, with a ramp leading to the warehouse and acropolis, built on a packed mud platform, original 4.26 metres (14.0 feet) in height (Now it is 3.35 metres or 11.0 feet.) on the south western flank of the basin.[46] The warehouse was originally built on sixty-four cubical blocks, 3.6 metres (12 feet) square, with 1.2-metre (3.9-foot) passages, and based on a 3.5-metre (11-foot) mud-brick podium. The pedestal was very high to provide maximum protection from floods. Brick-paved passages between blocks served as vents, and a direct ramp led to the dock to facilitate loading. The warehouse was located close to the acropolis, to allow tight supervision by ruling authorities. Despite elaborate precautions, the major floods that brought the city's decline destroyed all but twelve blocks, which became the makeshift storehouse.[47]
Rao's identification of basin as a dock was challenged by Leshnik in 1968 and later Yule in 1982,[48][12] who offered an alternative assessment of the feature as primarily an irrigation tank. In their assessment the dimensions of the "inlet" are not large enough to accommodate the draft of ocean going vessels, with inland craft having to be used to ferry goods to ocean going vessels birthed elsewhere. The identification of just two wells in the town, one on the southern edge of the dock and the other on the acropolis, were also offered to support the alternative primary purpose, as a tank to irrigate vegetables in the adjoining fields, a place to bathe, and a quay to unload river boats.[5][12]
The National Institute of Oceanography, Goa discovered foraminifera (marine microfossils) and salt, gypsum crystals (due to evapouration of seawater) in the rectangular structure clearly indicating that sea water once filled the structure, though Leshnik argued these could have been left through flood events.[5][7]
The purpose of the 5 stone weights found around the basin, as to whether they were anchors or Shadoof weights has also been debated, as have the source of the estuarine shells from the dock,[49][50] 5 terracotta models of boats and a circular Persian Gulf seal from Bahrain.[51]
It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks. This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.
The main inlet is 12.8 metres (42 feet) wide, and another is provided on the opposite side. To counter the thrust of water, offsets were provided on the outer wall faces. At high tide flow of 2.1–2.4 metres (6.9–7.9 ft) of water would have allowed ships to enter. Provision was made for the escape of excess water through the outlet channel, 96.5 metres (317 feet) wide and 1.7 metres (5.6 feet) high in the southern arm.
There was an important public building opposite to the warehouse whose superstructure has completely disappeared. Throughout their time, the city had to brace itself through multiple floods and storms. Dock and city peripheral walls were maintained efficiently.[citation needed] The town's zealous rebuilding ensured the growth and prosperity of the trade.[citation needed] However, with rising prosperity, Lothal's people failed to upkeep their walls and dock facilities, possibly as a result of over-confidence in their systems. A flood of moderate intensity in 2050 BCE exposed some serious weaknesses in the structure, but the problems were not addressed properly.[18]
Acropolis and lower town
The town center of Acropolis was the political and commercial heart of Lothal measuring at 127.4 metres (418 feet) east-to-west by 60.9 metres (200 feet) north-to-south. There were three streets and two lanes running east–west, and two streets running north–south. The four sides of the rectangular platform on which houses were built are formed by mud-brick structures of 12.2–24.4 metres (40–80 ft) thickness and 2.1–3.6 metres (6.9–11.8 ft) high.
The bead factory, which performs a very important economic function, possesses a central courtyard and eleven rooms, a store, and a guardhouse. There is a cinder dump as well as a double-chambered circular kiln with stoke-holes for fuel supply. Four flues are connected with each other, the upper chamber and the stokehold. The mud plaster of the floors and walls are vitrified owing to intense heat during work. The remnants of raw materials such as reed, cow dung, sawdust, and agate are found, giving archaeologists hints of how the kiln was operated.[54] A large mud-brick building faces the factory, and its significance is noted by its plan. Four large rooms and a hall, with an overall measurement of 17.1 by 12.8 metres (56 ft × 42 ft). The hall has a large doorway and a raised floor in the southern corner of the building.
Trade
A coastal route may have existed linking sites such as Lothal and
See also
- List of Indus Valley Civilization sites
- Bhagatrav, a small port
- Rangpur, Gujarat, a sea port
- National Maritime Heritage Complex, a tourism complex under construction near Lothal
Notes
- ^ a b c d "Archaeological remains of a Harappa Port-Town, Lothal". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 16 September 2021.
- ^ "Where does history begin?". 19 October 2017.
- ISBN 9780415329200.
- ^ "World's First Port Discovered in Red Sea". www.hic-mena.org. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
- ^ JSTOR 669756.
- ^ Leshnik, "The Harappan 'Port' at Lothal"
- ^ a b "Foraminifera as an additional tool for archaeologists – Examples from the Arabian Sea". 25 September 2015.
- ^ "Excavations – Important – Gujarat". Archaeological Survey of India. Archived from the original on 11 October 2011. Retrieved 25 October 2011.
- ^ https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5918/, UNESCO
- ISBN 1-900949-92-X. Retrieved 26 October 2006.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 2–3.
- ^ JSTOR 669756.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 30–31.
- ^ a b Khadkikar; et al. (2004). "Paleoenvironments around Lothal" (PDF). Journal of the Indian Geophysics Union (Vol. 8, No. 1).
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 6.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 1 February 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2014.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 8.
- ^ S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 11–17.
- F. Raymond Allchin, The rise of civilization in India and Pakistan, p. 187
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 12.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 13.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 13–14.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 13–15.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 40–41.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 39–40.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 39.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 41.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 43–45.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 2.
- ^ "India". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 2006. Retrieved 6 April 2006.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 45.
- ^ S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 42.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 41–42.
- ^ S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 43.
- ^ S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 33–34.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 31–33.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 35–36.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 45–47.
- ^ S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 46.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 47–48.
- ^ "Excavation Sites in Gujarat – Archaeological Survey of India". asi.nic.in. Archived from the original on 11 October 2011. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
- ISBN 978-81-7371-293-7.
- ^ "Ancient Lothal crumbling under modern neglect". Indian Express. India. 14 December 1998. Archived from the original on 19 September 2003.
- Indian Express. Archived from the originalon 27 February 2009. Retrieved 27 October 2006.
- ^ S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 28–29.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 7–8.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 17–18.
- ^
| title = Lothal
| publisher = C.H. Beck| author = Paul Yule | pages = 31 | year = 1982
- ^ "Stone anchors of India: Findings, Classification and Significance". January 2014.
- ^ "Indian Archaeology 1961-62 A Review" (PDF).
- ^ "Shipping and Maritime Trade of the Indus People". Expedition Magazine. 1965.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 19–21.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 23–24.
- S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 23.
- ISBN 9788131711200.
- ISBN 978-81-7371-293-7.
Harappa Town Planning" (published in "Uttar Pradesh" in November 1961).
- S. R. Rao, Lothal (published by the Director General, Archaeological Survey of India, 1985)
- A.S. Khadikar, N. Basaviah, T. K. Gundurao and C. Rajshekhar Paleoenvironments around the Harappan port of Lothal, Gujarat, western India, in Journal of the Indian Geophysicists Union (2004)
- Lawrence S. Leshnik, The Harappan "Port" at Lothal: Another View American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 70, No. 5 (Oct., 1968), pp. 911–922
- Robert Bradnock, Rajasthan and Gujarat Handbook: The Travel Guide ISBN 1-900949-92-X
- S. R. Rao, Lothal and the Indus Civilisation ISBN 0-210-22278-6
- S. R. Rao, Lothal: A Harappan Port Town (1955–1962) (Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India) ASIN: B0006E4EAC
- Paul Yule, Lothal. Stadt der Harappa-Kultur in Nordwest-Indien. Materialien zur Allgemeinen und Vergleichenden Archäologie 9, Munich, 1982 = AVA-Materialien, ISBN 3406090583
- Sir John Marshall, Mohenjo-daro and Indus Civilisation I–III (1932)
- Dennys Frenez & Maurizio Tosi The Lothal Sealings: Records from an Indus Civilization Town at the Eastern End of the Maritime Trade Circuits across the Arabian Sea, in M. Perna (Ed.), Studi in Onore di Enrica Fiandra. Contributi di archeologia egea e vicinorientale, Naples 2005, pp. 65–103.
- S. P. Gupta (ed.), The Lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilization (1995), Kusumanjali Prakashan, Jodhpur
- ISBN 0-19-577940-1
External links
- Lothal
- A Walk through Lothal
- Ancient Civilizations Timeline
- The Harappan Civilization
- Indus artefacts
- Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India Offers Surprising New Evidence For Cultural Complexity in Little-known Ahar-banas Culture, Circa 3000-1500 B.C
- "Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization". Archived from the original on 1 January 2007.
- Collection of images