Louis de Buade de Frontenac
Louis de Buade de Frontenac | |
---|---|
Jacques-René de Brisay de Denonville, Marquis de Denonville | |
Succeeded by | Louis-Hector de Callière |
Personal details | |
Born | 22 May 1622 Chateau St-Louis, Quebec City, New France |
Signature | ![]() |
Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac et de Palluau (French pronunciation: [lwi də bɥad kɔ̃t də fʁɔ̃tənak e də palɥo]; 22 May 1622 – 28 November 1698) was a French soldier, courtier, and Governor General of New France in North America from 1672 to 1682, and again from 1689 to his death in 1698. He established a number of Forts on the Great Lakes and engaged in a series of battles against the English and the Iroquois.[1]
In his first term, he supported the expansion of the fur trade, establishing Fort Frontenac (in what is now Kingston, Ontario) and came into conflict with the other members of the Sovereign Council[2] over its expansion and over the corvée that were required to build the new forts. In particular, despite the opposition of Bishop François de Laval, he supported selling brandy to the aboriginal tribes, which Laval considered a mortal sin. The conflict with the Sovereign Council led to his recall in 1682.
His second term was characterised by the defence of Quebec from an English invasion during
Early life
Frontenac was born in
Frontenac entered the army at an early age. In 1635 he began his military career and he served under the prince of Orange in Holland, and fought with credit and received many injuries during engagements in the Low Countries and in Italy. He was promoted to the rank of colonel in the regiment of Normandy in 1643, and three years later, after distinguishing himself at the siege of Orbetello, where he had an arm broken, he was made maréchal de camp.[2] In the 17th century, warfare ceased during the winter months, and Frontenac, being a soldier, needed to keep occupied. Like many military officers, Frontenac took residence at the King's court.[3] Such a lavish lifestyle proved to be costly, and his time at the King's court only led him to amass more debt. His growing debt led him to seek an arrêt du Conseil d'état later in his life to protect his properties from his creditors, who otherwise would have been able to seize them.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Anne_de_La_Grange-Trianon%2C_comtesse_de_Frontenac.jpg/170px-Anne_de_La_Grange-Trianon%2C_comtesse_de_Frontenac.jpg)
His service seems to have been continuous until the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, when he returned to his father's house in Paris and married, without the consent of her parents, Anne de la Grange-Trianon[2] in October 1648.[4] Frontenac courted her because she was set to inherit a large sum of money from her deceased mother and her father upon his death. Anne de la Grange-Trianon's father had remarried and had a second child to ensure that his fortune would not go to his daughter and the son-in-law that he disapproved of.[5] Therefore, when Frontenac's father-in-law died, Frontenac did not receive the money he was hoping for as his wife's father left his fortune to his new wife. The marriage was not a happy one, and after the birth of a son incompatibility of temper led to a separation, the count retiring to his estate on the Indre, where by an extravagant course of living, he became hopelessly in debt. Little is known of his career for the next fifteen years beyond the fact that he held a high position at court, but in 1669, when France sent a contingent to assist the Venetians in the defense of Crete against the Ottomans, Frontenac was placed in command of the troops on the recommendation of Turenne. In that expedition he won military glory, but his fortune was not improved.[2]
In 1664, Frontenac admitted to owing debt of 325,878
A 17th-century painting of Anne de la Grange-Trianon can be seen at the Château de Versailles.
First term in New France
At this period the affairs of New France claimed the unexpected attention of the French court. From the year 1665 the colony had been successfully administered by three men:
From the beginning of Frontenac's term, it was evident that he was prepared to effect a policy of colonial expansion. He was also anxious to inaugurate an era of prosperity for Canada.[9] He exercised an independence of action that did not coincide with the views of his minister Colbert.[2] As governor, Frontenac was the most powerful figure within the colony. Among his most prominent duties as governor, Frontenac maintained control over military matters and foreign affairs. Situated within the context of the French colony throughout the seventeenth century, foreign affairs largely encompassed the relations between French settlers and indigenous peoples.[10] Although the governor was not allowed to intervene in matters handled by the Sovereign Council and the intendant, persons in these formal posts had to respect the governor as the ultimate voice of authority. Such compliance was based on the notion that the governor was the king's representative. The governor was not merely an intermediary or a stand-in. The governor extended the king's authority from France to the North American colony. As one of his first acts as governor, he established his presence as the sovereign delegate of the king by establishing in Canada the three estates – nobles, clergy and people – and convening a colonial Estates General to pledge fealty to him.[11] The arrival of the governor implied that all of the colony's settlers pledge allegiance to the king. Frontenac did not take this lightly. The royal policy, however, was averse to the granting of extensive political rights to the Canadians, and Frontenac's reforms in this direction were disapproved.[9] In relation to the hierarchy of authority within the colonial setting, any check on the governor's power was absent. In Frontenac's case, France's finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who resided in France, could only impose restraints upon the governor's powers.[12] Thus, measures were adopted to curb his ambition by increasing the power of the Sovereign Council and by reviving the office of intendant.[2] Responding to his reduction in the Sovereign Council to a figurehead, he expressed his infuriation by challenging the authority of the intendant, Jacques Duchesnau and demanding that the council refer to him as the "chief and president".[13]
Frontenac, was a dominant man, jealous of authority, prepared to exact obedience from all and to yield to none. In the course of events he soon became involved in quarrels with the intendant touching questions of precedence and with the ecclesiastics, one or two of whom ventured to criticize his proceedings. The church in New France had been administered for many years by the religious orders; for the see of Quebec, so long contemplated, had not yet been erected. But three years after the arrival of Frontenac, a former vicar apostolic,
During Frontenac's first administration many improvements had been made in the country. The defenses had been strengthened, a fort was built at Cataraqui (now
Second term in New France
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Frontenac_revient_%C3%A0_Qu%C3%A9bec_en_1689.jpg/170px-Frontenac_revient_%C3%A0_Qu%C3%A9bec_en_1689.jpg)
The affairs of the colony were now critical. A man of experience and decision was needed to cope with the difficulties, and Louis XIV, chose Frontenac to represent and uphold the power of France. When on 17 October 1689, Frontenac arrived in Quebec as governor for the second time, he received an enthusiastic welcome, and confidence was at once restored in the public mind.[17] Quebec was not long to enjoy peace.[2]
Frontenac's return to New France during the Nine Years' War offered him an opportunity to display his military capabilities against England in North America.[18] Despite the tensions created during his first term as governor-general, Frontenac was still unwilling to share power with the Sovereign Council and continued to profit from the Canadian fur trade.[19] In January 1690, Frontenac approved the use of raiding parties composed of French and Indigenous raiders to attack English border settlements. The parties raided the towns of Schenectady and Salmon Falls and murdered English colonists, but spared the Iroquois.[20] The raids were intended to deter the English from forming an alliance with the Iroquois, but instead united the English colonies against New France. On October 16, 1690, several New England ships under the command of Sir William Phips, governor of Massachusetts, appeared off l'Île d'Orléans, and an officer was sent ashore to demand the surrender of the fort.[2] Frontenac, bold and fearless,[2] responded with the famous words: "Non, je n'ai point de réponse à faire à votre général que par la bouche de mes canons et de mes fusils." ("No, I have no reply to make to your general other than from the mouths of my cannons and muskets.").[21] In the ensuing Battle of Quebec, Frontenac's forces completely repulsed the English, who in their hasty retreat left behind a few pieces of artillery on the
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Frontenac_receiving_the_envoy_of_Sir_William_Phipps_demanding_the_surrender_of_Quebec%2C_1690.jpg/220px-Frontenac_receiving_the_envoy_of_Sir_William_Phipps_demanding_the_surrender_of_Quebec%2C_1690.jpg)
The prestige of the governor was increased by this event, and he was prepared to follow up his advantage by an attack on Boston from the sea, but his resources were inadequate. New France now rejoiced in a brief respite from her enemies, and during the interval Frontenac paid some attention to the social life of the colony and encouraged the revival of drama at the
New France had been under intermittent attack throughout the 17th century. The people, however, were not subdued and for two years after the Phips attack, petty warfare was maintained. The sufferings of the colony, infested by war parties, were extreme. The fur trade, which formed its only resource for subsistence, was completely cut off, and a great accumulation of furs remained in the trading posts of the upper lakes, prevented from descending by the watchful enemy.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Clothing_of_the_French_Canadiens_and_the_Milice_reenactment.jpg/220px-Clothing_of_the_French_Canadiens_and_the_Milice_reenactment.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Frontenac_with_the_Indians.jpg/170px-Frontenac_with_the_Indians.jpg)
In 1696 Frontenac decided to take the field against the Iroquois, although at this time he was 74 years old. On July 6, he left Lachine as the head of a considerable force for the village of the Onondagas, where he arrived a month later. In the meantime, the Iroquois had abandoned their villages, and as pursuit was impracticable, the army commenced its return march on August 10. Frontenac endured the march as well as the youngest soldier, and for his courage and prowess he received the cross of St. Louis.[2] Under Frontenac's leadership, arranged to provide all militiamen with clothing and equipment. This consisted generally of a capote, a breechcloth, leggings, a blanket, moccasins, a knife and two shirts, The clothing did not constitute a military uniform but was simply Canadian-style civilian wear. Since these men were not paid, this was a relatively economical way of maintaining an effective militia, the Canadian militia became increasingly adept at guerrilla warfare and took the war into Iroquois territory and attacked a number of English settlements.[24] After waging a war of attrition between 1690 and 1698, the Iroquois fled the raided territory and negotiated for peace with the French.[25] The result was that the threat of the Iroquois to New France was finally diffused.
At the time of his second appointment as governor in 1689, France authorized the importation of enslaved Africans to Quebec from French colonies in the West Indies.
Frontenac died on 28 November 1698 at the Chateau St-Louis after a brief illness and was deeply mourned by the Canadian people. The faults of the governor were those of temperament. His nature was turbulent, and from his youth he had been used to command, but underlying a rough exterior there was evidence of a kindly heart. He was fearless, resourceful and decisive, and triumphed as few men could have done over the difficulties and dangers of a most critical position.[2]
Honours
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2019) |
Many sites and landmarks were named to honour Louis de Buade de Frontenac. They include:
- Fort de Buade, St. Ignace, Michigan, United States
- Québec, Canada
- Frontenac National Park in Québec, Canada.
- Avenue Frontenac, located in Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada
- Rue Frontenac and Québec, Canada
- Frontenac Street, located in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada;
- The provincial electoral district of Frontenac, Quebec.
- Frontenac County, Ontario, the sites of Fort Frontenac
- Frontenac, Missouri, a wealthy suburb of St. Louis.
- Frontenac, Minnesota, an old resort town on the Mississippi River.
- Forward Operating Base Frontenac, Argandab Valley, Afghanistan
- The Frontenac rose, developed by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.[26]
- The Kingston Frontenacs team of the Ontario Hockey League
- Frontenac Squadron at the Royal Military College of Canada
- Frontenac School and Frontenac Park in the Windsor Park neighborhood of Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Frontenac Public School and Frontenac Park in Burlington, Ontario, Canada
- New York State.
- Frontenac, Kansas is the second largest city in Crawford County.
Folklore
Frontenac's coat of arms marks the entrance to the Château, part of which lies on the site of his former home. Some claim to have spotted him, dressed in 17th-century garb while he wandering the halls or floating through the ballroom.[27]
See also
Notes
- ^ Moogk, Peter N. (15 June 2015). "Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac". The Canadian Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada. Archived from the original on 20 December 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t public domain: Doughty, Arthur George (1911). "Frontenac et Palluau, Louis de Buade, Comte de". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 249–250. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
- ^ Eccles, William John (1955). Frontenac and New France, 1672–1698 (PhD). Montreal, Quebec: McGill University. p. 34.
- ^ Eccles (1955), p. 39.
- ^ Eccles (1955), p. 42.
- ^ W. J. Eccles, Frontenac: The Courtier Governor (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1959), 23.
- ^ Arthur Quinn, A New World: An Epic of Colonial America from the Founding of Jamestown to the Fall of Quebec (Boston: Faber & Faber, 1994), 277
- ^ Tanguay, J Fernand (1992), Canada 125: The Constitutions (PDF), Canada Communication Group, retrieved 6 April 2021
- ^ New International Encyclopedia(1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
- ^ Eccles, Frontenac, 2–3.
- ^ Quinn, A New World, 296.
- ^ Eccles, Frontenac, 31.
- ^ Eccles, Frontenac, 134-36.
- ^ Eccles, Frontenac, 149-51.
- ^ Eccles, Frontenac, 151.
- ^ Eccles, Frontenac, 79.
- ISBN 9780722267066.
- ^ Quinn, A New World, 277.
- ^ Eccles, Frontenac, 274-75.
- ^ Eccles, Frontenac, 224-26
- ISBN 9781514430729.
- ^ a b Parkman, Francis (1900). . In Wilson, J. G.; Fiske, J. (eds.). Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
- ^ "Vincennes, Sieur de (Jean Baptiste Bissot)", The Encyclopedia Americana (Danbury, CT: Grolier, 1990), 28:130.
- ^ Quinn, A New World, 320–21.
- ^ Quinn, A New World, 325–26.
- ^ [1] Frontenac rose
- ^ Canada Post revives Canadian-made ghost tales with collection of five spine-tingling stamps[2]
References
- Burke, Peter. The Fabrication of Louis XIV. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.
- Eccles, W. J. Frontenac: The Courtier Governor. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1959.
- Eccles, W.J. Frontenac: The Courtier Governor. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003.
- Eccles, William John. "Frontenac and New France, 1672–1698." PhD diss., McGill University, 1955.
- Quinn, Arthur. A New World: An Epic of Colonial America from the Founding of Jamestown to the Fall of Quebec. Boston: Faber & Faber, 1994.
External links
- Association Frontenac-Amériques (in French)
- Eccles, W. J. (1979) [1966]. "Buade, Louis de, Comte de Frontenac et de Palluau". In Brown, George Williams (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. I (1000–1700) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
- Chronicle as Governor of Canada at Project Gutenberg
- Historica’s Heritage Minute video docudrama about “Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac, Governor of New France.” (Flash video)
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