Narco-state
The political neutrality of this article is disputed. This article may contain biased or partisan political opinions about a political party, event, person or government stated as facts. (July 2023) |
Narco-state (also narco-capitalism or narco-economy
The term is often seen[
Currently scholars argue that the term "narco-state" is oversimplified because of the underlying networks running the drug trafficking organisations.[6] For example, the Guadalajara Cartel in Mexico, led by Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, who managed to combine several small drug trafficking families into one overarching cartel[7] controlling the marijuana production in the rural areas of Mexico[8] while trafficking Colombian cocaine to the US at the same time.[9]
Over time the cocaine market expanded to
Ongoing discussions divide scholars into separate groups either claiming or disclaiming the resemblance between narco-states and
Usage
It has been argued that narco-states can be divided into five categories depending on their level of dependence on the narcotics trade and the threat the narcotics trade in said country poses to domestic and international stability. These five categories are (in ascending order): incipient, developing, serious, critical, and advanced.[16]
However, recent use of the term narco-state has been questioned by some for being too widely and uncritically applied, particularly following the widespread media attention given to Guinea-Bissau as "the world's first narco-state" in 2008,
Examples
Afghanistan
Afghanistan was very well known for its opium production. As of 2021, Afghanistan's harvest produces more than 90% of illicit heroin globally, and more than 95% of the European supply.[19][20] Most of the opium was smuggled through Herat and Faizabad to the Golden Crescent countries such as Iran and Pakistan. Opium production and trafficking are known to have funded the Taliban's military activities and insurgency.[21][22]
Belize
Johnny Briceño, elected prime minister of Belize in 2020, is the son of Elijio "Don Joe" Briceño, who in 1985 was convicted of trafficking marijuana and cocaine into the United States. Two others members of the Briceño family were also indicted, with prosecutors describing the clan as operating a "family marijuana business".[24][25]
Bolivia
The drug trade in Bolivia gained its prominence in 1980s, when the demand for cocaine was booming across the Latin America. Bolivia's most lucrative crop and economic activity in the 1980s was coca, whose leaves were processed clandestinely into cocaine.[26][27] The country was the second largest grower of coca in the world, supplying approximately fifteen percent of the US cocaine market in the late 1980s.[27] Analysts believed that exports of coca paste and cocaine generated between US$600 million and US$1 billion annually in the 1980s (depending on prices and output).[27]
In 1980, General
The 1980s coup was said to have been financed by Bolivia's most notorious drug baron,
Brazil
Since 1990, the phenomenon of urban violence has intensified. There are currently more than fifty criminal factions in Brazil.[33] Since the 1990s, Brazil has seen a significant increase in urban violence, often linked to drug trafficking and organized crime. The presence of over fifty criminal factions indicates a deeply entrenched network of illicit activities. These groups are involved in various illegal operations, including the local drug trade and international drug trafficking. The power and influence of these factions, such as the First Capital Command (PCC) and the Red Command (CV), extend beyond prisons into various urban areas, contributing to the issue. Brazil's extensive borders with major cocaine-producing countries like Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia make it a key transit country for drug trafficking. This geographic situation, combined with socio-economic factors and challenges in law enforcement and judicial systems, creates an environment conducive to the growth of organized crime and drug trafficking.
Former president Jair Bolsonaro's family has been linked to so called "milícias", composed of police officers and other government officials engaged in narcotrafic.[34] One of aides, who has been charged a 2 million euro fine over cocaine transportation, is being investigated for using an official airplane and the president's credit card for drug-trafficking.[35] During the presidential election of 2022, Bolsonaro supporters made claims regarding Lula's alleged links to criminal factions.[36]
Other politicians, such as former president Fernando Collor de Mello, have been investigated for mobster relations.[37]
Colombia
Beginning in the mid-1970s
The
During the drug war, major Colombian cartels were known to be influencing Colombian politicians and warlords alike. In order to flex his muscle, Escobar went to politics and ran as candidate for the
Guinea-Bissau
Guinea-Bissau, in West Africa, has been called a narco-state due to government officials often being bribed by traffickers to ignore the illegal trade.[43] Colombian drug cartels used the West African coast as Jamaica and Panama increased policing. The Guardian noted that Guinea-Bissau's lack of prisons, poor policing, and poverty attracted the traffickers.[44] An article in Foreign Policy questioned the effectiveness of money from the United States, the European Union, and the United Nations designated to combat the illegal trade.[45]
Honduras
Iran
Since 2017, a sudden surge in crystal meth production and smuggling from Iran has contributed to a drug epidemic in neighboring Iraq and Turkey.[47]
Lebanon
Illegal drugs trading pervaded in
In April 2021, Greek authorities seized four tonnes of cannabis hidden in dessert-making machinery at Piraeus, which was en route from Lebanon to Slovakia.[51] In the same month, 5.3 million Captagon pills hidden in fruits imported from Lebanon were seized by authorities in Saudi Arabia.[52] In May 2021, Lebanese authorities confiscated cocaine hidden in Makdous, destined for Australia.[53] In the same month, Lebanese customs at Beirut Airport seized 60 tonnes of hashish, intended to be exported to the Netherlands.[54]
Mexico
Government corruption has been a long-standing problem in Mexico. Drug cartels have been influential in Mexican politics, contributing large sums of money into Mexican electoral campaigns, supporting candidates sensitive to bribery in order to keep their businesses safe.[55] Since the early 20th century, drug trafficking had been tolerated by the Mexican government. Since 1929, the dominant party of Mexico, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), forged ties with various groups in order to gain political influence. Among them were drug traffickers. The ties between the PRI and the drug lords sustained an alliance with the drug traffickers and sanctioned their activities.[56]
During the 1980s and 1990s the drug trade in Mexico accelerated. Before the 1980s most of Mexico produced marijuana and a small amount of
The US established a special force, named the
The
During the court hearing for the most wanted cartel leader, Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán, it was alleged that former president Enrique Peña Nieto had accepted a $100 million bribe from the drug kingpin.[57]
Myanmar
Myanmar is the second-largest opium producing nation in the world, only behind Afghanistan.[58] The opium trade network in Myanmar indirectly created a network widely known as the Golden Triangle, a term coined by the CIA, in the area around the Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand border. Opium production in Myanmar dates back to during the period of the Konbaung dynasty.[59]
In aftermath of the
North Korea
The
Netherlands
As early as 1996, the Netherlands was labelled as a narco-state in a French government report.[citation needed] Since then, the question of whether the Netherlands is actually a narco-state has been asked many times[by whom?] and the answer depends strongly on which characteristics are attributed to a narco-state. In any case, the size of the drug sector in the Netherlands suggests that drug crime has been a persistent problem in the Netherlands for years[citation needed] and that the fight against it constantly poses complex questions to politics and criminal justice[citation needed]. In 2018, several police detectives stated in a report by the Dutch Police Association that the Netherlands "already exhibited a painful number of characteristics of a narco-state".[citation needed] Minister Grapperhaus of Justice and Security stated in a response that the Netherlands is not a narco-state. After the murder of lawyer Derk Wiersum and crime reporter Peter R. de Vries, the qualification of the Netherlands as a narco-state received new attention.[64][65][66][67][68][69]
Nicaragua
After the Nicaraguan Revolution, the Sandinista National Liberation Front, led by Daniel Ortega, took the national government of Nicaragua from the Somoza dynasty. In 1980s the Sandinista government was accused of helping Pablo Escobar's Medellin Cartel by giving him access to a drug trafficking corridor within Nicaragua. According to the United States diplomatic cables leak, Ortega was said to receive drug money in order to influence the 2008 local elections in the country. Another cable also stated that Nicaraguan officials returned from Venezuela with a briefcase full of cash, indicating potential government involvement with drug cartels.[70][71]
Panama
The dictatorship of
Suriname
Suriname has been labeled as a narco-state due to the involvement of President Dési Bouterse and his family in drug trafficking. Bouterse was sentenced in absentia in the Netherlands to 11 years' imprisonment after being convicted of trafficking 474 kg (1,045 lb) of cocaine.[75] His son Dino Bouterse has been arrested twice in three different countries and is currently serving 16 years imprisonment in the United States on a charge of drug trafficking.[citation needed]
Syria
Syria is home to a burgeoning
During its occupation of Lebanon between 1976–2005, the Assad regime used its proxies in Lebanon for establishing its multi-billion dollar drug industry.[80] Syria was labeled as a narco-state by the United States for nearly a decade until 1997. Throughout the Syrian occupation of Lebanon when they controlled the cannabis cultivation in the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon,[81] the Assad regime was the Middle East's main source of hashish.[82]
During the
One of the largest drug seizures occurred in a
The New York Times reported in December 2021 that the
In January 2022, the Jordanian military killed 27 drug smugglers who attempted to infiltrate via the Syrian border. 17,000 packets of hashish and 17 million Captagon pills were busted during the first quarter of 2022, a figure much higher than during the whole of 2021. Sources from the Jordanian army revealed that the drug trade is financed by a well-funded network of armed militias. In May 2022, the Jordanian government accused Iran of launching a "drug war" against the country, through its Khomeinist proxy militias based in Syria's southern regions. Officials in the Jordanian army described the rise in drug smuggling as part of an "undeclared war" waged to subvert "families, morals and values".[100][101][102][103]
In March 2022, international drug lord Bruno Carbone, leader of the Camorra syndicate, was captured by the Syrian Salvation Government and extradited to Italy by November.[104][105] In May 2023, Jordanian airforce launched its first ever airstrikes targeting a building in Shuaib village of As-Suwayda Governorate, killing Marai al-Ramthan, a major drug kingpin in the country who co-ordinated the captagon trafficiking operations. Another round of air attacks struck a major drug factory in the Daraa Governorate.[106][107]
Venezuela
More recently,
See also
- Crack epidemic in the United States
- Mafia state
- Narco-submarine
- Narcokleptocracy
- Philippine Drug War
- State Sponsors of Terrorism (U.S. list)
- State cartel theory
Notes
- ^ The terms are standard words with the prefix "narco-", defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "associated with the trade in illegal drugs".[1]
References
- ^ "narco-". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ Islamic State of Afghanistan: Rebuilding a Macroeconomic Framework for Reconstruction and Growth (Report). International Monetary Fund. 2003.
- ^ Weiner, Matt (August 2004). An Afghan 'Narco-State'?: Dynamics, Assessment and Security Implications of the Afghan Opium Industry. Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence (Report). Retrieved 28 January 2018.
- ^ hdl:10419/118635.
- .
- S2CID 143677315.
- ^ J.D. Saldaña & T. Payan. "The Evolution of Cartels in Mexico, 1980-2015" (PDF). Scholarship.rice.edu. México Center: Rice University's Institute for Public Policy. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
- ^ Grillo, Ioan (2012). El Narco. The Bloody Rise of Mexican Drug Cartels. London, Delhi, New York & Sydney: Bloomsbury.
- ^ Bonner, Robert C. (July–August 2010). "The New Cocaine Boys. How to Defeat Mexico's Drug Cartels" (PDF). Foreign Affairs. 89 (4). Retrieved 11 May 2020.
- ^ Schweich, Thomas (2008). "Is Afghanistan a Narco-state?". The New York Times.
- ISBN 978-0-7556-4542-8.
- ^ Wood, Paul (19 November 2022). "How Syria became the world's most profitable narco state". The Spectator. Archived from the original on 17 November 2022.
- ^ "Syria has become a narco-state". The Economist. 24 July 2021. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022.
- ^ Haid, Haid (7 February 2022). "Syria's emerging drug empire is not going away soon". The Arab Weekly. Archived from the original on 4 March 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4128-1551-2. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
- OCLC 1026718619.
- ^ Vulliamy, Ed (9 March 2008). "How a tiny West African country became the world's first narco state". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
- S2CID 142714114.
- ^ Felbab-Brown p. 113
- ^ David Greene (host, Morning Edition), Hayatullah Hayat (Governor of Helmand Province, Afghanistan), Tom Bowman (reporter), Dianne Feinstein (U.S. Senator, Chair of the Caucus on International Narcotics Control) (6 July 2016). Afghan Governor Wants Government To Control Poppy Crop (Radio broadcast). NPR. Event occurs at 0:10. Retrieved 6 July 2016.
Afghanistan's poppy production… accounts for more than 91 percent of the world's heroin.
- ^ "The Taliban Are Breaking Bad".
- ^ "Afghanistan: How do the Taliban make money?". BBC News. 27 August 2021.
- ^ "Belize among places El Chapo did 'business'". Breaking Belize News. 4 January 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- ^ Cosco, Joseph (9 April 1985). "Ex-Belize minister held on drug counts". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
- ^ Marris, Martin (9 April 1985). "Former Belize Minister Arrested In Alleged Pot Plot". AP. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- JSTOR 166043.
- ^ a b c Hudson & Hanratty 1991, pp. 124–126 .
- ^ Long, William R. (31 August 1988). "After Nephew Steals Business, Suarez Gomez Winds Up in Jail: Treachery, Police Pressure Ended Bolivia Drug King's Rule". LA Times.
- Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 29 November 2016.
- ^ "Bolivian Drug Lord Is Captured". The New York Times. 22 July 1988.
- ^ NEWTON, JIM (6 February 1993). "Bolivian Accused of Heading Drug Cartel Convicted: Crime: Jorge Roca Suarez is found guilty of cocaine, tax and money-laundering charges in his second trial. Authorities say verdict sends a message to traffickers" – via LA Times.
- ^ LONG, WILLIAM R. (31 August 1988). "After Nephew Steals Business, Suarez Gomez Winds Up in Jail: Treachery, Police Pressure Ended Bolivia Drug King's Rule" – via LA Times.
- ^ "Mapa das facções criminosas no Brasil | Infográficos | Gazeta do Povo". 3 January 2019.
- ^ "Família Bolsonaro acumula indícios de envolvimento com milicianos; relembre os casos". Brasil de Fato (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 27 January 2023.
- ^ "Investigação aponta possíveis cúmplices de militar que transportava cocaína na comitiva de Bolsonaro". G1 (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 27 January 2023.
- ^ Patriolino, Luana (18 July 2022). "Moraes ordena retirada de fake news que ligam Lula ao PCC". Política (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 27 January 2023.
- ^ "Folha de S.Paulo - PF investiga envolvimento de Collor com máfia e traficantes - 17/03/97". www1.folha.uol.com.br. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
- ^ "The Colombian Cartels". WGBH educational foundation. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
- ^ International Crisis Group. "Dismantling Colombia's New Illegal Armed Groups: Lessons from a Surrender", CrisisGroup.org. 8 June 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
- ^ "History of Drug Trafficking". History. 31 May 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
- ^ "El proceso 8.000, a 21 años del escándalo mayor". El Espectador. 23 April 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
- ^ Deans, Bob (2 March 1996). "U.S. Cuts Colombia Aid Over Drug Issue". San Francisco Chronicle. Cox News Service. p. A1.
- ^ Washington Post newspaper: Guinea-Bissau coup: Prime minister arrested for helping drug trade, military says 13 April 2012 "Analysts told the AP that in Guinea-Bissau, traffickers have bought off members of the government and military, turning the country into a 'narcostate.'"
- ^ Vulliamy, Ed (9 March 2008). "How a tiny West African country became the world's first narco state". The Guardian.
- ^ "How Not to Fix an African Narco-State".
- Insight Crime. 5 August 2019.
- ^ "Crystal meth pours into Iraq across porous borders with Iran". Washington Post. 17 October 2022. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
- ^ "Is Lebanon a Narco-State?". Gulf News. 9 July 2016.
- ^ "Lebanon's Captagon boom". executive-magazine.com. 8 February 2016.
- ^ "Regional Report on the Near East" (PDF). Council of the European Union. 13 April 2015. p. 26.
- ^ "Four tonnes of cannabis found in cupcake-making machines". Euronews. 23 April 2021.
- ^ "Lebanon vows to punish drug smugglers as Saudi import ban bites". Arab News. 25 April 2021.
- ^ "شاهد: لحظة استخراج "الكوكايين" من المكدوس اللبناني قبل تصديره". lomazoma.com (in Arabic). 6 May 2021.
- ^ "جمارك المطارأحبطت محاولة تصدير 60 كيلو غراما من مادة الحشيش مخبأة ضمن ادوات للزينة الى امستردام". NNA (in Arabic). 7 May 2021.
- ^ Agren, David (10 November 2017). "Mexico drug cartel's grip on politicians and police revealed in Texas court files". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.
- ^ a b c Bonner, Robert C. (July–August 2010). "The New Cocaine Cowboys. How to Defeat Mexico's Drug Cartels". Foreign Affairs. 89 (4).
- ^ "El Chapo paid $100m bribe to former Mexican president Peña Nieto, witness says". The Guardian. 15 January 2019 – via www.theguardian.com.
- S2CID 78645580.
- ^ Alfred W. McCoy. "Opium History, 1858 to 1940". Archived from the original on 4 April 2007. Retrieved 4 May 2007.
- ^ Scott, Peter Dale (2010). "Operation Paper: The United States and Drugs in Thailand and Burma" (PDF). The Asia-Pacific Journal. 8 (44–2). Retrieved 30 April 2022.
- ^ Lintner, Bertil (1999). Burma in Revolt: Opium and Insurgency Since 1948. Silkworm Books.
- ISBN 978-0-9856480-2-2. Archived(PDF) from the original on 3 September 2014.
- ^ Yong-an Zhang (3 December 2010). "Drug Trafficking from North Korea: Implications for Chinese Policy". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
- ^ Sanders, Ewoud (4 August 2019). "Nederland is een narcostaat". NRC. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
- ^ KleinJan, Gerrit-Jan (20 February 2018). "Nederland is volgens rechercheurs hard op weg een 'narcostaat' te worden". Trouw. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
- ^ Crijns, J. H., & van der Meij, P. P. J. (2019). Nederland als narcostaat?(Redactioneel). Strafblad, 2019(5), 4-6.
- ^ "Nederland narcostaat? Dit wordt er met drugs verdiend in ons land". RTL Nieuws. 12 July 2021. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
- ^ "Grapperhaus: Nederland is geen narcostaat". nos.nl. 20 February 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
- ^ Driessen, Camil (24 July 2021). "Hoogste baas politie: 'Nederland is geen narcostaat'". NRC. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
- ^ Strange, Hannah (1 May 2010). "Nicaragua accused of helping Colombian drug lords to establish trafficking routes". The Times. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
- ^ "Wikileaks: Nicaragua's Ortega 'financed by drugs money'". BBC News. 7 December 2010. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
- ^ Scranton 1991, p. 13.
- ^ Dinges 1990, pp. 125–127.
- ^ Dinges 1990, pp. 298–299.
- ^ "NOVA – detail – Nieuws – Hoge raad bevestigt veroordeling bouterse". novatv.nl. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the originalon 28 December 2021. Retrieved 6 December 2021.
- ^ a b Chulov, Martin (7 May 2021). "'A dirty business': how one drug is turning Syria into a narco-state". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the originalon 28 December 2021. Retrieved 6 December 2021.
- ^ a b c "The Syrian Economy at War: Captagon, Hashish, and the Syrian Narco-State". COAR. 27 April 2021. Archived from the original on 2 February 2022.
- ISBN 0-312-21786-2.
- ^ "Removing Syria from the Narcotics List: A Signal to Damascus?". The Washington Institution. 10 November 1997.
- ^ ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
- ^ "Meet Captagon, the nightmare drug fuelling Syria's civil war". cbc.ca. 2 June 2017.
- ^ "Italian police seize €1bn amphetamine haul from Syria". The Guardian. 1 July 2020.
- ^ "World Drug Report 2009" (PDF). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2009. p. 127.
- ISBN 978-92-64-34526-3.
- ^ a b Behram Özdemir, Ömer (2022). "Illegal Financing and Security of Militia Logistics". Iran-Backed Militia in Syria: Profiles and Functions. Orsam. p. 303.
- ^ Rose, Söderholm, Caroline, Alexander (April 2022). "The Captagon Threat: A Profile of Illicit Trade, Consumption, and Regional Realities" (PDF). New Lines Institute. pp. 26, 27. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2022.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Is the Syrian Regime the World's Biggest Drug Dealer?". Vice World News. 14 December 2022. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022.
- ^ Fox, Tessa (10 August 2020). "The Islamic State Isn't Behind Syria's Amphetamine Trade". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 11 August 2020.
- ^ "Egyptian customs seize large drug shipment from Syria in port of Alexandria". SyriacPress. 22 November 2020.
- ^ "بـ30 مليون جنيه.. ضبط 6 أطنان حشيش داخل حاوية بميناء دمياط". elnabaa.net (in Arabic). 22 November 2020.
- ^ "'A dirty business': how one drug is turning Syria into a narco-state". The Guardian. 7 May 2021.
- ^ "Turkish UAV drone stops 1.5 tons of marijuana being smuggled out of Syria". The Jerusalem Post. 17 May 2021.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 29 December 2021 – via NYTimes.com.
- ^ Lister, Charles (29 April 2022). "We cannot ignore Syria's emergence as a narco-state". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 29 April 2022.
- ^ Rose, Söderholm, Caroline, Alexander (April 2022). "The Captagon Threat: A Profile of Illicit Trade, Consumption, and Regional Realities" (PDF). New Lines Institute. pp. 2–39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2022.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Rose, Söderholm, Caroline, Alexander (April 2022). "The Captagon Threat: A Profile of Illicit Trade, Consumption, and Regional Realities" (PDF). New Lines Institute. pp. 2–39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2022.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Lister, Charles (9 January 2023). "Monday Briefing: Assad's narco-state enriches itself as Syrians face a spiraling economic and humanitarian crisis". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 9 January 2023.
- ^ Knell, Yolande (18 April 2022). "Captagon: Jordan's undeclared war against Syria drug traffickers". BBC News. Archived from the original on 18 April 2022.
- ^ "Jordanian army says it killed 27 drug smugglers from Syria". BBC News. 27 January 2022. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022.
- ^ Lister, Charles (29 April 2022). "We cannot ignore Syria's emergence as a narco-state". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 3 May 2022.
- ^ Al-Khalidi, Suleiman (24 May 2022). "Jordan says Iran-linked groups in Syria wage drug war along border". Reuters. Archived from the original on 4 June 2022.
- ^ "Italy arrests drug trafficker captured in Syria". Arab News. 15 November 2022. Archived from the original on 15 November 2022.
- ^ Ibrahim, Hassan (30 November 2022). "Handing over Italian mafia boss:Handing over Italian mafia boss: Tahrir al Sham's "security assurances" to West Tahrir al-Sham's "security assurances" to West". Enab Baladi. Archived from the original on 6 December 2022.
- ^ Mrou, Chehayeb, Bassem, Kareem (8 May 2023). "Airstrikes kill well-known Syrian drug kingpin". AP News. Archived from the original on 8 May 2023.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Jordan behind attack that killed drug trafficker in Syria: SOHR". Al Jazeera. 8 May 2023. Archived from the original on 9 May 2023.
- ^ "US accuses Venezuelan vice-president of role in global drug trafficking". The Guardian. London. Associated Press. 14 February 2017. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
- ^ Evansky, Ben (14 November 2017). "Trump Administration praised by democracy activists for calling Venezuela a 'narco-state'". Fox News. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
Further reading
- Abrashi, Fisnik (16 August 2006). "Afghan opium cultivation hits a record". The Washington Post. Retrieved 4 July 2016.
Now what they have is a narco-economy. If they do not get corruption sorted they can slip into being a narco-state
- Blackman, Shane (3 October 2010). "Drug war politics: Governing culture through prohibition, intoxicants as customary practice and the challenge of drug normalisation". Sociology Compass. 4 (10): 841–855. .
- "Seattle Police Officer Arrested as Part of a Drug Conspiracy Transporting Large Amounts of Marijuana to East Coast" (Press release). Drug Enforcement Administration. 8 May 2017. Archived from the original on 26 December 2017. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
- opendna (20 March 2002). "The Narco-State Cometh". Kuro5hin. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
- Petras, James; Veltmeyer, Henry (2016). Beyond Neoliberalism: A World to Win. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-17464-6.
In other words, narco-capitalism played a major role in saving the world financial system from collapse, highlighting the ties between lumpen capital and barbarous imperialism
- Pine, Jason (2007). "Economy of speed: The new narco-capitalism". Public Culture. 19 (2): 357–366. .
- Young, Bob (25 November 2017) [24 November 2017]. "Seattle pot-shop mural: art, or ad appealing to kids?". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
External links
- "The Economics of Cocaine Capitalism" by Rensselaer Lee, COSMOS Journal, 1996