Robert Conquest

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Robert Conquest

University of Grenoble
  • Magdalen College, Oxford
    • Notable works
    Notable awardsSee below
    Spouse
    • Joan Watkins
      ​
      ​
      (m. 1942; div. 1948)​
    • Tatiana Mihailova
      ​
      ​
      (m. 1948; div. 1962)​
    • Caroleen MacFarlane
      ​
      ​
      (m. 1964; div. 1978)​
    • Elizabeth Wingate
      ​
      ​
      (m. 1979)​
    Children3

    George Robert Acworth Conquest

    FRSL (15 July 1917 – 3 August 2015) was a British-American historian, poet, and novelist.[1] He was briefly a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain
    but later wrote several books against Communism.

    A long-time research fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution, Conquest was most notable for his work on the Soviet Union. His books included The Great Terror: Stalin's Purges of the 1930s (1968); The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivisation and the Terror-Famine (1986); and Stalin: Breaker of Nations (1991). He was also the author of two novels and several collections of poetry.

    Early life and education

    Conquest was born in

    Croix de Guerre, with Silver Star in 1916.[4]

    Conquest was educated at

    DLitt in history.[6]

    Career

    War years

    In Lisbon on an American passport at the outbreak of the Second World War, Conquest returned to England.[7] As the Communist Party of Great Britain denounced the war in 1939 as imperialist and capitalist, Conquest broke with it and was commissioned into the Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry on 20 April 1940, serving with the regiment until 1946.[8][5]

    In 1943 he was posted to the

    Foreign Office, returning to the British Legation in Sofia where he remained as the press officer.[1] In 1948 he left Bulgaria when he was recalled to London under a minor diplomatic cloud after he had helped smuggle two Bulgarians out of the country.[9]

    Information Research Department

    In 1948 Conquest joined the Foreign Office's Information Research Department (IRD), a "propaganda counter-offensive" unit created by the Labour Attlee government[10] in order to "collect and summarize reliable information about Soviet and communist misdoings, to disseminate it to democratic journalists, politicians, and trade unionists, and to support, financially and otherwise, anticommunist publications."[11] The IRD was also engaged in manipulating public opinion.[12] Conquest was remembered there as a "brilliant, arrogant" figure who had 10 people reporting to him.[5] He continued to work at the Foreign Office until 1956, becoming increasingly involved in the intellectual counter-offensive against communism.[9]

    In 1949 Conquest's assistant, Celia Kirwan (later Celia Goodman), approached George Orwell for information to help identify Soviet sympathisers. Orwell's list, discovered after her death in 2002, included Guardian and Observer journalists, as well as E. H. Carr and Charlie Chaplin.[13] Conquest, like Orwell, fell for the beautiful Celia Kirwan, who inspired him to write several poems.[9] One of his foreign office colleagues was Alan Maclean, brother of Donald Maclean, one of the Philby spy ring, who fled to Russia with Guy Burgess in 1951. When his brother defected, Alan resigned, then went to Macmillan and published a book of Conquest's poems.[5] At the Foreign Office, Conquest wrote several papers that sowed the seeds for his later work. One, on the Soviet means of obtaining confessions, was elaborated on in The Great Terror. Other papers were "Peaceful Co-existence in Soviet Propaganda and Theory", and "United Fronts – a Communist Tactic".[9] In 1950 Conquest served briefly as First Secretary in the British Delegation to the United Nations.[citation needed]

    Writing

    In 1956 Conquest left the Foreign Office and became a freelance writer and historian.

    Charles Patrick Fitzgerald.[14]

    In 1962–1963 Conquest was literary editor of The Spectator, but he resigned when he found the job interfering with his historical writing. His first books on the Soviet Union were Common Sense About Russia (1960), The Soviet Deportation of Nationalities (1960) and Power and Policy in the USSR (1961). His other early works on the Soviet Union included Courage of Genius: The Pasternak Affair (1961) and Russia After Khrushchev (1965).[9]

    Historical works

    The Great Terror (1968)

    Main article: The Great Terror (book)

    In 1968 Conquest published what became his best-known work, The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties, the first comprehensive research of the Great Purge, which took place in the Soviet Union between 1934 and 1939. Many reviewers at the time were not impressed by his way of writing about the Great Terror, which was in the tradition of "great men who make history".[12] The book was based mainly on information which had been made public, either officially or by individuals, during the so-called "Khrushchev Thaw" in the period 1956–64. It also drew on accounts by Russian and Ukrainian émigrés and exiles dating back to the 1930s, and on an analysis of official Soviet documents such as the Soviet census.[15]

    The most important aspect of the book was that it widened the understanding of the purges beyond the previous narrow focus on the "Moscow trials" of disgraced Communist Party of the Soviet Union leaders such as Nikolai Bukharin and Grigory Zinoviev, who were executed shortly thereafter. The question of why these leaders had pleaded guilty and confessed to various crimes at the trials had become a topic of discussion for a number of western writers, and helped inspire anti-Communist tracts such as George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Arthur Koestler's Darkness at Noon.[16]

    Conquest argued that the trials and executions of these former Communist leaders were a minor detail of the purges. By his estimates, Stalinist purges had led to the deaths of some 20 million people. He later stated that the total number of deaths could "hardly be lower than some thirteen to fifteen million."[17]

    Conquest sharply criticized Western intellectuals such as

    D. N. Pritt, Theodore Dreiser, Bertolt Brecht, Owen Lattimore, and Romain Rolland, as well as American ambassador Joseph Davies, accusing them of being dupes of Stalin and apologists of his regime. Conquest cites various comments made by them where, he argues, they were denying, excusing, or justifying various aspects of the purges.[18]

    After the opening up of the

    ISBN 0-19-507132-8.[19] The American historian J. Arch Getty disagreed, writing in 1993 that the archives did not support Conquest's casualty figures.[20] In 1995, investigative journalist Paul Lashmar suggested that the reputation of prominent academics such as Robert Conquest was built upon work derived from material provided by the IRD.[21]
    According to Denis Healey The Great Terror was an important influence, "but one which confirmed people in their views rather than converted them".[5]

    Many aspects of his book continue

    Bolshevik Revolution, wrote "One of the few unalloyed pleasures of old age is living long enough to see yourself vindicated. Robert Conquest is currently enjoying this pleasure."[24] Conservative historian Paul Johnson, one of Thatcher's closest advisers, described Conquest as "our greatest living historian". And, in the phrase of Timothy Garton Ash, he was Solzhenytsin before Solzhenytsin.[5]

    In 1996 Marxist historian

    Age of Extremes,[25] praised Conquest's The Great Terror "as a remarkable pioneer effort to assess the Stalin Terror". However he expressed the view that this work and others were now to be considered obsolete "simply because the archival sources are now available". As a result, he wrote, there was no need for "fragmentary sources" and "guesswork". "[W]hen better or more complete data are available, they must take the place of poor and incomplete ones."[26] In 2002 Conquest replied to his revisionist critics: "They're still talking absolute balls. In the academy, there remains a feeling of, "Don't let's be too rude to Stalin. He was a bad guy, yes, but the Americans were bad guys too, and so was the British Empire."[27]

    The Harvest of Sorrow (1986)

    Main article: The Harvest of Sorrow

    In 1986 Conquest published

    Stephen Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, "Conquest holds that Stalin wanted the famine... and that the Ukrainian famine was deliberately inflicted for its own sake." Nevertheless, he wrote to them in a letter in 2003 that "Stalin purposely inflicted the 1933 famine? No. What I argue is that with resulting famine imminent, he could have prevented it, but put 'Soviet interest' other than feeding the starving first thus consciously abetting it."[28][29]

    Stalin and the Kirov Murder (1989)

    For the

    Menshevik view became the dominant one among western historians, popularised in Robert Conquest's influential books.[30]

    In

    The Great Terror, Conquest already undermined the official Soviet story of conspiracy and treason. Conquest placed the murder in 1934 of the Leningrad party boss, Sergei Kirov
    , one of Stalin's inner circle, as the key to the mechanism of terror.

    He returned to this in Stalin and the Kirov Murder (1989), where he argued that Stalin not only sanctioned Kirov's assassination, but used it as a justification for the terror that culminated in 1937–38, though no evidence has been found to confirm Stalin's role in the murder.[13][31][32]

    Poetry and literature

    Poems

    In addition to his scholarly work, Conquest was a well-regarded poet[33] whose poems have been published in various periodicals from 1937. In 1945 he was awarded the PEN Brazil Prize for his war poem "For the Death of a Poet" – about an army friend, the poet Drummond Allison, killed in Italy – and, in 1951, he received a Festival of Britain verse prize.[34] During his lifetime, he had seven volumes of poetry[35] and one of literary criticism[36] published.

    Conquest was a major figure in a prominent British literary circle known as "The Movement" which also included Philip Larkin and Kingsley Amis. Movement poets, many of whom bristled at being so labeled, rejected the experiments of earlier practitioners such as Ezra Pound.[16]

    He edited, in 1956 and 1962, the influential New Lines anthologies, introducing works by them, as well as

    University of Buffalo. Several of his poems were published in The New Oxford Book of Light Verse (1978; compiled by Amis), under the pseudonyms "Stuart Howard-Jones", "Victor Gray" and "Ted Pauker".[citation needed
    ]

    It emerged from the pages of poet Philip Larkin's published letters that Conquest and Larkin shared an enthusiasm for pornography in the 1950s.[9] When Larkin was in Hull, Conquest sent him judicious selections of the latest pornography, and, when he came down to London, Conquest took him on shopping trips to the Soho porn shops.[13] On one occasion Conquest, in 1957, wrote a letter to Larkin purporting to come from the Vice Squad which had found the poet's name on a pornographic publisher's list. Larkin panicked and went to see his solicitor, convinced that he was going to lose his job as librarian at Hull University, before Conquest owned up.[9] The true story of the joke became in 2008, Mr Larkin's Awkward Day, a comedy radio play by Chris Harrald.[38]

    Soon after his expulsion from the Soviet Union, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn met with Conquest, asking him to translate a 'little' poem of his into English verse. This was "Prussian Nights" – nearly two thousand lines in ballad metre – published in 1977.[39]

    A new Collected Poems, edited by Elizabeth Conquest, was published in March 2020 by the Waywiser Press.[40]

    Novels

    Conquest had been a member of the British Interplanetary Society since the 1940s, and shared Amis's taste for science fiction. Starting from 1961, the two writers jointly edited Spectrum, five anthologies of new sci-fi writing.[13] Conquest also proposed to Amis a collaboration based on a draft comic novel that Conquest had completed. This was revised by Amis, then it appeared under both their names as The Egyptologists (1965).[13] The novel is about a secret Egyptological London society that is really a husbands' organization serving as an alibi for philanderers.[16][41] A reviewer in The New York Times felt that their "elaborate little jokes leave an unpleasant taste".[13]

    Later a film version of the novel was cancelled when its star, Peter Sellers, was called away to Hollywood.[42] Conquest published a science-fiction novel, A World of Difference (1955).[1]

    Political works

    What to Do When the Russians Come (1984)

    In 1984, Robert Conquest wrote, with

    Fortress America
    , starts from the premise that a Soviet ground-invasion of the United States could be imminent and that the Soviet Union was about to engulf the world.

    It is widely accepted that the United States now faces a real possibility of succumbing to the power of an alien regime unless the right policies are pursued. [This book's aim] is, first, to show the American citizen clearly and factually what the results of this possible Soviet domination could be and how it would affect him or her personally; and second, to give some serious advice on how to survive."[43]

    Conquest supported the Reagan defense buildup and asked for an increase of expenses on US defense budget, claiming that in the nuclear field NATO was only possibly matching USSR military power:

    We live in dangerous times. Such miscalculations are very possible. But they are not inevitable. The American people and their representatives have it in their power to prevent their country from undergoing the ordeal we have described. A democratic government, with all its distractions and disadvantages, ... It is not infallible, it is slow to learn, and it is willing to grasp at comfortable illusions; but it may yet act decisively"[44] "But why should we fear that such an ordeal may face us? The economic potential of the West in gross national product is far greater than that of the Soviet Union....In fact, the Soviet Union is economically far behind the United States. American technology is always a generation ahead of theirs. They have to turn to the United States for wheat. The Soviet economy is at a dead end. The Communist system has failed to win support in any of the countries of Eastern Europe. The Soviet idea has no attractions. On any calculation—of economic power or social advance or intellectual progress there could be no question of the Russians imposing their will. But in terms of actual military power, the West's advantage does not seem to have been made use of. It is at least matched, and many would say overmatched, in the nuclear field; the Western forces in Europe have less than half the striking power of their opponents. It is no good our being more advanced than they are if this is not translated into power—both military power and political willpower."[45]

    In 1986 Conquest affirmed that "a science-fiction attitude is a great help in understanding the Soviet Union. It isn't so much whether they're good or bad, exactly; they're not bad or good as we'd be bad or good. It's far better to look at them as Martians than as people like us."[41]

    Reflections on a Ravaged Century (1999)

    External videos
    video icon Booknotes interview with Conquest on Reflections on a Ravaged Century, December 19, 1999, C-SPAN
    video icon Presentation by Conquest of Reflections on a Ravaged Century, January 19, 2000, C-SPAN

    Reflections on a Ravaged Century is a book devoted to the psychological roots of fanaticism, in which Conquest argues that Communism and Nazism were equal and more twins than opposites.[46]

    There is much more in this book about communism than Nazism, partly because of Conquest's greater expertise on communism, and partly because comparatively few Western intellectuals became Nazis. He focuses mainly on attacks on intellectuals in the West who became communists because they felt or believed that this was "anti-fascism" or "anti-Nazism".[46]

    Laws of politics

    Conquest posited two laws of politics, apparently not referenced in any of his books but as observations he made in conversations while alive:[47]

    1. Generally speaking, everybody is reactionary on subjects he knows about.
    2. Every organisation appears to be headed by secret agents of its opponents.

    Conquest's first and second law are attested by at least two sources.[47] On 14 February 2003, Andrew Brown wrote of Conquest's campaign against the expansion of university education that "[f]rom this period dates 'Conquest's Law', which states that 'Everyone is a reactionary about subjects he understands'. This was later supplemented with the balancing rule that every organisation behaves as if it is run by secret agents of its opponents."[5] In his 1991 Memoirs, Kingsley Amis wrote of Conquest that "he was to point out that, while very 'progressive' on the subject of colonialism and other matters I was ignorant of, I was a sound reactionary about education, of which I had some understanding and experience. From my own and others' example he formulated his famous First Law, which runs, 'Generally speaking, everybody is reactionary on subjects he knows about.' (The Second Law, more recent, says, 'Every organisation appears to be headed by secret agents of its opponents.')"[48]

    On 25 June 2003,

    National Review Online's blog The Corner that "[a]s best I can remember", Conquest conjectured three laws of politics:[49]

    1. Everyone is conservative about what he knows best.
    2. Any organization not explicitly right-wing sooner or later becomes left-wing.
    3. The simplest way to explain the behavior of any bureaucratic organization is to assume that it is controlled by a cabal of its enemies.

    Derbyshire commented: "Of the Second Law, Conquest gave the

    O'Sullivan's first law, which was stated by John O'Sullivan in his article "O'Sullivan's First Law" in the 27 October 1989 print issue of the National Review
    , in which he also references Derbyshire's Conquest's third law as Conquest's second law:

    That is explained by O'Sullivan's First Law: All organizations that are not actually right-wing will over time become left-wing. I cite as supporting evidence the

    Iron Law of Oligarchy
    takes over — and the rest follows.

    Is there any law which enables us to predict the behavior of right-wing organizations? As it happens, there is: Conquest's Second Law (formulated by the Sovietologist Robert Conquest):

    The behavior of an organization can best be predicted by assuming it to be controlled by a secret cabal of its enemies. Examples: virtually any conservative party anywhere, the Ronald Lauder for Mayor campaign, and the British secret service. That last example is, however, flawed, since the British secret service actually was controlled by a secret cabal of its enemies in the form of Kim Philby, Anthony Blunt, et al. In which case, Conquest's Law should have operated to make M1-6 [sic] a crack anti-Soviet intelligence service of James Bond proportions. But these are deep waters.[50]

    Personal life

    Conquest was married four times, first in 1942 to Joan Watkins, with whom he had two sons. They divorced in 1948.[9] There followed a marriage to Tatiana Mihailova (1948–1962),[9] whom he had helped escape from Bulgaria.[1] She was diagnosed with schizophrenia in 1951. In 1962 he married Caroleen MacFarlane; they divorced in 1978.[9] That year he began dating Elizabeth Neece Wingate, a lecturer in English and the daughter of a United States Air Force colonel. He and Wingate married in 1979. When he died in 2015, he had several grandchildren from his sons and stepdaughter.[1][5]

    Later life

    Conquest (left) receiving the Presidential Medal of Freedom with Aretha Franklin (middle) and Alan Greenspan (right) at the White House, November 2005

    In 1981 Conquest moved to California to take up a post as Senior Research Fellow and Scholar-Curator of the Russian and Commonwealth of Independent States Collection at Stanford University's

    Yorkshire Television.[52]

    Conquest died in 2015 in Stanford, California, at the age of 98, of respiratory failure as a result of Parkinson's disease.[1][16]

    Awards and honors

    Conquest was a Fellow of the

    Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.[9]

    His honours include

    His awards include:

    Selected works

    Historical and political

    Journal articles

    Poetry

    • Poems (1956)[5]
    • Back to Life: Poems from behind the Iron Curtain as translator/editor (1958)
    • Between Mars and Venus (1962)[5]
    • Arias from a Love Opera, and Other Poems (1969)[5]
    • Forays (1979)[5]
    • New and Collected Poems (1988)[5]
    • Demons Don't (1999)[5]
    • Penultimata (2009)[5]
    • A Garden of Erses [limericks, as Jeff Chaucer] (2010)[5]
    • Blokelore and Blokesongs (2012)[5]

    Novels

    • A World of Difference (1955)[1]
    • The Egyptologists (with Kingsley Amis, 1965)[1]

    Criticism

    • The Abomination of Moab (1979)[1]

    References

    1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Grimes, William (4 August 2015). "Robert Conquest, Historian Who Documented Soviet Horrors, Dies at 98". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016.
    2. ^ Encyclopedia of British Writers, 19th and 20th Centuries by Christine L. Krueger page 87
    3. ^ Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, Volume 2 By R. Reginald, Douglas Menville, Mary A. Burgess
    4. ^ Supplement to the Alumni Register (October 1920), "Pennsylvania; A Record of the University's Men in the Great War", University of Pennsylvania General Alumni Society, 1920, page 40.
    5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al Brown, Andrew (15 February 2003). "Scourge and poet". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 August 2015.
    6. ^ "Robert Conquest". Hoover Institution. Retrieved 11 February 2019.
    7. ^ "Vale Robert Conquest, Historian and Poet". Quadrant. quadrant.org.au. 4 August 2015. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
    8. ^ "No. 34837". The London Gazette (Supplement). 23 April 1940. p. 2459.
    9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q "Robert Conquest, historian – obituary". The Daily Telegraph. 4 August 2015. Archived from the original on 4 August 2015.
    10. ^ a b c d Leigh, David (27 January 1978). "Death of the department that never was". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
    11. ^ Timothy Garton Ash. "Orwell's List" (review), New York Review of Books, 23 September 2003.
    12. ^ a b Samuelson, Lennart. "A pathbreaker. Robert Conquest and Soviet studies during the Cold War". Baltic Worlds. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
    13. ^ a b c d e f Homberger, Eric (5 August 2015). "Robert Conquest obituary". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
    14. ^ Lyons, Richard D. (5 June 1994). "Frederick A. Praeger Dies at 78; Published Books on Communism". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
    15. ^ Conquest, Robert (1968). The Great Terror (1st ed.).
    16. ^ a b c d Cronin, Brenda; Cullison, Alan (4 August 2015). "Robert Conquest, Seminal Historian of Soviet Misrule, Dies at 98". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 4 August 2015.
    17. ^ Robert Conquest, Preface, The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition, Oxford University Press, USA, 2007. p. xviii
    18. ISBN 0-19-507132-8
      , pp. 466–75.
    19. ^ Conquest, Robert. "Letter to the Editors", The New York Review of Books, 12 April 2007.
    20. JSTOR 2166597. Archived
      (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2008.
    21. ISBN 978-1317791690
      .
    22. doi:10.1080/09668139999056. Archived
      (PDF) from the original on 4 July 2007.
    23. S2CID 205667754. Archived
      (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2008.
    24. ^ Ignatieff, Michael (23 March 2000). "The Man Who Was Right". New York Review of Books. 47 (5). Retrieved 7 October 2015.
    25. ^ Moyihan, Michael C. (20 August 2011). "How a True Believer Keeps the Faith". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 9 January 2012.
    26. ISBN 978-1780220512
      .
    27. ^ "Robert Conquest an appreciation". nationalreview.com. 5 August 2015. Retrieved 18 September 2015.
    28. ^ Wheatcroft, Stephen (June 2006). "Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932-33: A Reply to Ellman" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 58 (4): 625–633. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 August 2017 – via JSTOR.
    29. ISBN 9780230273979
      .
    30. ^ Priestland, David (May 2011). "The Kirov Murder and Soviet History". History Today. 61 (5). Retrieved 27 September 2015.
    31. ^ The Whisperers, Orlando Figes, Allen Lane 2007, p. 236n
    32. ^ Getty, J. Arch, Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933-38, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 207.
    33. ^ David Yezzi, Yale Review, Volume 98, Issue 2 (April 2010), p. 183 ff.
    34. ^ "Robert Conquest, Penultimata: Note on Robert Conquest". waywiser-press.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2014.
    35. ^ Haven, Cynthia (16 August 2010). "Stanford legend Robert Conquest: new books at 93 for the historian and poet". Stanford Report. Retrieved 4 August 2015.
    36. ^ "Robert Conquest". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 4 August 2015.
    37. ^ Zachary Leader, ed., The Movement Reconsidered, Oxford University Press, 2009.
    38. ^ BBC Radio 4 Publicity (29 April 2008). "Mr Larkin's Awkward Day". BBC Radio 4.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
    39. ^ Robert Conquest, 'Solzhenitsyn, A Genius with a Blindspot', Sunday Times, 10 August 2008; p. A15
    40. ^ Collected Poems, Robert Conquest
    41. ^ a b Hillier, Bevis (19 November 1986). "Harvest' of Soviet Terrorism Reaped by Historian Conquest". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
    42. ^ O'Sullivan, John (14 August 2015). "What to Make of the Guardian's Shameful Robert Conquest Obituary?". National Review. nationalreview.com. Retrieved 27 September 2015.
    43. ISBN 0812829859
      . Retrieved 24 September 2015.
    44. ISBN 0812829859
      . Retrieved 24 September 2015.
    45. ISBN 0812829859
      . Retrieved 24 September 2015.
    46. ^ a b Hitchens, Christopher (26 November 1999). "Against sinister perfectionism". The Times Literary Supplement. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
    47. ^ a b Vogel, Martin (17 December 2018). "Tracking down Conquest's law on organisations". Vogel Wakefield. Archived from the original on 11 October 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
    48. ISBN 9781446414668
      . Retrieved 13 October 2021 – via Google Books.
    49. ^ Derbyshire, John (25 June 2003). "Conquest's Laws". National Review. Archived from the original on 11 October 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
    50. ^ O'Sullivan, John (27 October 1989). "Conquest's Laws". National Review. Archived from the original on 15 July 2010. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
    51. ^ "Quand Bernard-Henri Lévy pétitionnait contre le régime légal du Nicaragua". 1 October 2009.
    52. ^ McCannon, John (Fall 1998). "Red Empire". The Journal for Multi Media History. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
    53. ^ "Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients". Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
    54. ^ "No. 54255". The London Gazette (Supplement). 29 December 1995. p. 3.
    55. ^ "No. 40366". The London Gazette (Supplement). 31 December 1954. p. 13.
    56. ^ "Ukraine honors Robert Conquest with Presidential Medal of Honor". Ukrweekly.com. 24 September 2006. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
    57. ^ "Stanford Report, 21 June 2006". News.stanford.edu. 21 June 2006. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
    58. ^ Jay, Mike. (2013) "Who Were the Dedicatees of Powell’s Works?" The Anthony Powell Society Newsletter.50 (spring): 9-10.
    59. ^ "Streets of world-famous researchers of the Holodomor appeared in Dnipro". Istorychna Pravda (in Ukrainian). 7 February 2024. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
    60. ^ "The Dan David Prize: Laureates 2012:Robert Conquest". dandavidprize.org. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
    61. ^ National Advisory Council. Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 20 May 2011.

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